ILROB 170 Prelim 1
Terms
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- learning
- a relatively permanent change in behavior occurring as a result of experience
- operant conditioning (aka instrumental conditional)
- the form of learning in which people associate the consequences of their actions with the actions themselves; behavior with positive consequences are acquired; behaviors with negative consequences tend to be eliminated
- law of effect
- the tendency for behaviors leading to desirable consequences to be strengthened and those leading to undesirable consequences to be weakened
- positive reinforcement
- the process by which people learn to perform behaviors that lead to the presentation of desirable outcomes
- negative reinforcement (aka avoidance)
- the process by which people learn to perform acts that lead to the removal of undesired events
- motivation
- the set of processes that arouse, direct, and maintain human behavior toward attaining some goal
- need hierarchy theory
- Abraham Maslow's theory specifying that there are five human needs (pshysiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization) and the these are arranged in such a way that lower, more basic needs must be satisfaied before higher-level needs become activated
- physiological needs
- lowest-order, most basic needs specified by Maslow's need hierarchy theory, including fundamental biological drives, such as the need for food, water, air, and shelter
- safety needs
- according to Maslow's need hierarchy, safety needs include the need for a secure environment and to be free from threats of physical or psychological harm
- social needs
- in Maslow's need hierarchy, the need to be affiliative--that is, to have friends, and to be loved and accepted by other people
- deficiency needs
- the group of physiological, safety, and social needs in Maslow's need hierarchy; as the needs are not met, people will fail to develop in a healthy fashion
- growth needs
- in Maslow's need hierarchy, esteem needs and the need for self-actualization; gratification of these needs helps a person reach his or her full potential
- esteem needs
- in Maslow's need hierarchy, the need to develop self-respect and to gain the approval of others
- self-actualization
- in Maslow's need hierarchy, the need to discover who we are and to develop ourselves to the fullest potential
- ERG theory
- an alternative to Maslow's need hierarchy proposed by Aderefer, which asserts that there are three basic human needs: existence, relatedness, and growth
- outplacement services
- assistance in finding new jobs that companies provide to employees they lay off
- goal setting
- the process of determining specific levels of performance for workers to attain
- self-efficacy
- one's belief about having the capacity to perform a task
- goal-setting theory
- the theory according to which a goal serves as a motivator because it causes people to compare their present capacity to perform with that required to succeed at the goal
- goal committment
- the degree to which people accept and stive to attain their goals
- organizational justice
- people's perceptions of fairness in organizations, consisting of perspectives of how decisions are made regarding the distribution of outcomes(procedural justice) and the percieved fairness of those outcomes themselves (equity theory)
- distributive justice
- the perceived fairness of the way rewards are distributed among people
- equity theory
- the theory stating that people strive to maintain ratios of their own outcomes (rewards) to their own inputs (contributions) that are equal to the outcome/input ratios of others with whom they compare themselves
- outcomes
- the rewards employees receive from their jobs, such as salary and recognition
- inputs
- people's contributions to their jobs, such as their experience, qualifications, or the amount of time worked
- overpayment equity
- the condition resulting in feelings of guilt, in which the ratio of one's outcomes/inputs is more than the corresponding ratio of another person with whom that person compares himself
- underpayment inequity
- the condition resulting in feelings of anger, in which the ratio of one's outcomes/inputs is less than the corresponding ratio of another person with whom that person compares himself
- equitable payment
- the state in which one person's outcome/input ratio is equivalent to that of another person with whom the person compares himself
- procedural justice
- perceptions of the fairness of the procedures used to determine outcomes
- interactional justice
- the perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment used to determine organizational outcomes
- two-tiered wage structures
- payment systems in which newer employees are paid less than employees hired at earlier times to do the same work
- expectancy theory
- the theory that asserts that motivation si based on people's beliefs about the probability that effort will lead to performance (expectancy), multiplied by the probability that performance will lead to reward (instrumentality), multiplied by the perceived value of the reward (valence)
- expectancy
- the belief that one's efforts will positively influence one's performance
- instrumentality
- an individual's beliefs regarding the likelihood of being rewarded in accord with his or her own level of performance
- valence
- the value a person places on the rewards he or she expects to receive from an organization
- cafeteria-style benefit plans
- incentive systems in which employees have an opportunity to select the fringe benefits they want from a menu of available alternatives
- pay-for-performance plans
- a payment system in which employees are paid differentially based on the quantity and quality of their performance; pay for performance plans enhance instrumentality beliefs
- job design
- an approach to motivation suggesting that jobs can be created to enhance people's interest in doing them
- job enlargement
- the practice of expanding the content of a job to include more variety and a greater number of tasks at the same level
- job enrichment
- the practice of giving employees a high degree of control over their work, from planning and organization, through implementing the jobs and evaluating the results
- job characteristics model
- an approach to job enrichment that specifies that five core job dimensions (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and job feedback) produce critical psychological states that lead to beneficial outcomes for individuals and the organization
- growth need strength
- the personality variable describing the extent to which people have a high need for personal growth and development on the job
- motivating potential score
- a mathematical index describing the degree to which a job is designed so ast to motivate people, a suggested by the job characteristics model; it is computed one the basis of a questionnaire known as the job diagnostic survey; the higher the MPS, the more the job may stand to benefit from redesign
- organization
- a structured social system consisting of groups and individuals working together to meet some agreed-upon objectives
- organizational behavior
- the field that seeks increased knowledge of all aspects of behavior in organizational settings through the use of the scientific method
- behavioral sciences
- fields such as psychology and sociology that seek knowledge of human behavior and society through the use of the scientific method
- Theory X
- a traditional philosophy of management suggesting that most people are lazy and irresponsible and will work had only when forced to do so
- Theory Y
- A philosophy of management suggesting that under the right circumstances people are fully capable of working productively and accepting responsibility for their work
- open systems
- self-sustaining systems that transform input from the external environment into outpout, which the system then returns to the environment
- contingency approach
- a perspective suggesting that organizational behavior is affected by a large number of interacting factors; how someone will behave is said to be contingent upon many different variables at once
- time-and-motion study
- a type of applied research designed to classify and streamline the individual movements needed to perform jobs with the intent of finding 'the one best way' to perform them (Taylor)
- scientific management
- an early approach to management and organizational behavior emphasizing the importance of designing jobs as efficiently as possible (Taylor)
- human relations movement
- a perspective on organizational behavior that rejects the primary economic organization of scientific management and recognizes, instead, the importance of social processes in work settings (Mayo)
- Hawthorne studies
- the earliest systematic research in the OB field, this work was performed to determine how the design of work environments affected performance
- division of labor
- the practice of dividing work into specialize tasks that enable people to specialize in what they do best (Fayol)
- bureaucracy
- an organizational design that attempts to make organizations operate efficiently by having a clear hierarchy of authority in which people are required to perform well-defined jobs (Weber)
- globalization
- the process of interconnecting the world's people with respect to the cultural, economic, political, technological and environmental aspects of their lives
- multi-national enterprises (MNE's)
- organizations that have significant operations spread throughout various nations but are headquartered in a single country
- expatriates
- people who are citizens of one country but are living and working in another
- culture
- the set of values, customs, and beliefs that people have in common with other members of a social unit
- culture shock
- the tendency for people to become confused and disoriented as they attempt to adjust to a new culture
- repatriation
- the process of readjusting to one's own culture after spending time away from it
- convergence hypothesis
- a biased approach to the study of management, which assumes that principles of good management are universal, and that ones that work well in the US will apply equally well in other nations
- divergence approach
- the approach to the study of management that recognizes that knowing how to mange most effectively requires clear understanding of the culture in which people work
- child-care facilities
- sites at or near company locations where parents can leave their kids while working
- elder-care facilities
- facilities at which employees at work can leave elderly relative for whom they are responsible (such as parents or grandparents)
- baby boom generation
- the generation of children born in the economic boom period following World War II
- personal support policies
- widely varied practices that help employees meet the demands of their family lives, freeing them to concentrate on work
- informate
- the process by which workers manipulate objects by "inserting data" between themselves and those objects
- downsizing (rightsizing)
- the process of adjusting downward the number of employees needed to work in newly designed organizations
- outsourcing
- the process of eliminating those parts of organizations that focus on noncore sectors of the business and hiring outside firms to perform these functions instead
- core competency
- an organizations key capability, what is does best
- virtual corporation
- a highly flexible, temporary organizaiton formed by a group of companies that join forces to exploit a specific opportunity
- telecommuting (teleworking)
- the practice of using communications technology so as to enable work to be performed from remote locations, such as the home
- flextime programs
- policies that give employees some discrection over when they arrive adn leave work, thereby making it easier to adapt their work schedules to the demands of their personal lives
- contingent workforce
- people hired by organizations temporarily to work as needed for finite periods of time
- compressed workweeks
- the practice of working fewer days each week but longer hours each day
- job sharing
- a form of regular part-time work in whicuh pairs of employees assume the duties of a single job, splitting its responsibilities, salary, benefits in proportion to the time worked
- voluntary reduced work time (V time) programs
- programs that allow employees to reduce the amount of time they work by a certain amount with a proportional reduction in pay
- time quality management (TQM)
- an organizational strategy of commitment to improving customer satisfaction by developing techniques to carefully manage output quality
- benchmarking
- the process of comparing one's own products and services with the best from others
- quality control audits
- careful examination of how well a company is meeting its standards
- Malcom Baldrige Quality Award
- an award given annually to American companies that practice effective quality management and make significant improvements in the quality of their goods and services
- sweatshops
- unsafe and uncomfortable factories where people work long hours for low wages making clothing
- corporate social responsibility
- business decision making linked to ethical values, compliance with legal requirements, and respect for individuals, the community at large, and the environment; it involves operating a business that meets or exceeds the ethical, legal, and public expectations that society has of business
- ethics officers
- individuals (usually at the vice presidential level) who oversee the ethics of a company's operations
- code of ethics
- a document describing what an organization stands for and the general rules of conduct it expects of its employees
- ethics audit
- the process of actively investigating and documenting incidents of dubious ethical value within a company
- social perception
- the process of combining, integrating, and interpreting information about others to gain an accurate understanding of them
- attribution
- the process through which idividuals attempt to determine the cause behind others' behavior
- personal identity
- the charateristics that define a particular individual
- social identity
- who a person is, as defined in terms of his or her membership in various social groups
- social identity theory
- a conceptualization recognizing that the way we perceive others and ourselves is based on both our unique characteristics and our membership in various groups
- correspondent inferences
- judgements about people's dispositions, traits, and characteristics, that correspond to what we have observed of their actions
- internal causes of behavior
- explanations based on actions for which the idividual is responsible
- external causes of behavior
- explanations based on situations over which the individual has no control
- Kelley's Theory of causal attribution
- the approach suggesting that people will believe other's actions to be caused by internal or external factors based on three types of information: consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness
- consensus
- information regarding the extent to which other people behave in the same manner as the person being judged (Kelley)
- consistency
- information regarding the extent to which the person being judged acts the same way at other times
- distinctiveness
- information regarding the extent to which a person behave in the same manner in other contexts
- stereotypes
- beliefs that all members of specific groups share similar traits and are prone to behave in the same way
- perceptual biases
- predispositions that people have to misperceive others in various ways (including fundamental attribution error, halo effect, similar-to-me effect, and first impression error)
- fundamental attribution error
- the tendency to attribute other's actions to internal causes while largely ingoring external factors that also may have influence
- halo effect
- the tendency for overall impressions of others to affect objective evaluations of their specific traits; perceiving high correlations between characteristics that may be unrelated
- similar-to-me effect
- the tendency for people to perceive in a positive light others who are believed to be similar to themselves in any of several different ways
- selective perception
- the tendency to focus on some aspects of the environment while ignoring others
- first-impression error
- the tendency to base our judgement of others on our earliest impressions of them
- self-fulfilling prophecy
- the tendency for someone's expectations about another to cause that person to behave in a manner consistent with those expectations
- Pygmalion effect
- a positive instance of the self-fulfilling prophecy in which people holding high expectations of another tend to improve that individuals performance
- Golem effect
- a negative instance of the self-fulfilling prophecy in which people holding low expectations of another tend to lower that individual's performance
- perception
- the process through which people select, organize, and interpret information
- perfomance appraisal
- the process of evaluating employees on various work-related dimensions
- impression management
- efforts by individuals to improve how the appear to others
- corporate image
- the impression that people have of an organization
- personality
- the unique and relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions shown by individuals
- interactionist perspective
- the view that behavior is a result of complex interplay between personality and situational factors
- person-job fit
- the extent to which individuals possess the traits and competencies required to perform specific jobs
- objective tests
- questionnaires and inventories designed to measure various aspects of personality
- reliability
- the extent to which a test yields consistent scores on various occasions
- validity
- the extent to which a test actually measures what it claims to measure
- big five dimensions of personality
- five basic dimensions of personality that are assumed to underlie many specific traits: conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability, and openness to experience
- postive affectivity
- the tendency to experience positive moods and feelings in a wide range of settings and under many different conditions
- negative affectivity
- the tendency to experience negative moods in a wide range of settings and under many different conditions
- general self-efficacy
- people's overall beliefs about their general capacity to perform tasks successfully
- self-monitoring
- a personality trait involving the extent to which individual adapt their behavior to the demands of specific situations so as to make good impressions on others
- Machiavellianism
- a personality trait involving willingness to manipulate others for one's own purposes
- Type A behavior pattern
- a pattern of behavior involving high levels of competitiveness, time urgency, and irritability
- Type B behavior pattern
- a pattern of behavior characterized by a casual, laid-back style; the opposite of the Type A behavior pattern
- acheivement motivation
- the strength of an individual's desire to excel--to suceed at difficult tasks and to do better than other persons
- morning persons
- individuals who feel most energetic and alert early in the day
- evening persons
- individuals who feel most energetic and alert late in the day
- abilities
- mental and physical capapcities to perform various tasks
- cognitive intelligence
- the ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles by careful thought
- information processing
- cognitive effort involving the combination, integration, and use of complex information
- practical intelligence
- adeptness at solving the practical problems of everyday life
- tacit knowledge
- knowledge about how to get things done
- emotional intelligence (EQ)
- a cluster of skills relating to the emotional side of life
- successful intelligence
- intelligence that represents a good balance between cognitive intelligence (IQ), practical intelligence, and creative intelligence
- physical abilities
- people's capacities to engage in teh physical task required to perform a job (strength, flexibility, stamina, and speed)
- evaluative component
- liking or disliking of any particular person, item, or event
- cognitive component
- the things we believe about an attitude object, whether they are true or false
- behavioral component
- predisposition to behave in a way consistent with our beliefs adn feelings about an attitude object
- attitudes
- relatively stable clusters of feelings, beliefs, and behavioral intentions toward specific objects, people, or institutions
- work-related attitudes
- attitudes related to any aspect of work or work settings
- job satisfaction
- positive or negative attitudes held by individuals toward their jobs
- dispositional model of job satisfactions
- the conceptualization proposing that job satisfaction is a relatively stable disposition of an individual--that is, a characteristic that stays with people across situations
- Job Description Index (JDI)
- a rating scael for assessing job satisfaction; individuals respond to this questionnaire by indicating whether or not various adjectives describe aspects of their work
- Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)
- a rating scale for assessing job satisfaction in which people indicate the extent to which they are satisfied with various aspects of their job
- Pay Satisfaction Questionnaire (PSQ)
- a questionnaire designed to assess employees' levels of satisfaction with various aspects of their pay
- critical incidents technique
- a procedure for measuring job satisfaction in which employees describe incidents relating to their work that they find especially satisfying or dissatisfying
- two-factor theory
- a theory of job satisfaction suggesting that satisfaction and dissatisfaction stem from different groups of variables (motivators and hygiene factors
- value theory (of job satisfaction)
- a theory suggesting that job satisfaction depends primarily on the match between the outcomes individuals vaule in their jobs and their perceptioins about the availability of such outcomes
- employee withdrawal
- actions such as chronic absenteeism and voluntary turnover that enable employees to escape from adverse organization situations
- unfolding model of voluntary turnover
- a conceptualization that explains the cognitive processes through which people make decisions about quitting or staying on their jobs
- organizational commitment
- the extent to which an individual indentifies and is invovled with his or her organization and/or is unwilling to leave it
- continuance commitment
- the strength of a person's desire to continue working for an oganization bc he or she needs to do so and cannot afford to leave
- affective commitment
- the strength of a person's desire to work for an organization bc he or she agrees with its underlying goals and values
- normative commitment
- the strength of a person's desire to continue working for an organization bc he or she feels obligations from others to remain there
- profit-sharing plans
- incentive plans in which employees receive bonuses in proportion to the company's profitability