Biology Exam 1

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formed by sharing electrons: covalent bonds
differences in this cause an unequal sharing of electrons between atoms: electronegativity
asymmetric distribution of charge results in this: polarity
NaCl is an example of this bond: ionic bond
weak bonds that only occur when atoms and molecules are very close together: van der Waal's forces
weak bonds: hyrdogen bonds
leads to hydrogen bonding between water molecules: high polarity
bonding between water molecules: cohesion
bonding between water and other polar molecules: adhesion
molecules are polar, enabling them to form hydrogen bonds with water: hydrophilic
molecules are non-polar, they coalesce and form barriers to the movement of the opposite molecules: hydrophobic
measure of hydronium ion concentration, =-log[H+]: pH
pH 1-6: acidic
pH 7: neutral
pH 8-14: basic
forms 4 covalent bonds making it possible to make complex molecules: carbon with four electons in valence shell
vary in length, branching, double bonds, and rings and can contain a diversity of functional groups: carbon chains
how macromolecules are built, connects monomers by taking out water and breaks down monomers by adding water: dehyrdation
reverse of dehydration, breaks down something with water: hydrolysis
four major categories of biological macromolecules: carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
include sugars and their polymers: carbs
where energy is harvested from (glucose, galactose): monosaccharides
where energy is stored in (glycogen, starch): polysaccharides
made from fatty acids joined to glycerol molecules: lipids
all are hydrophobic and made from fatty acids: lipids
composed of 3 fatty acid chains bound to a glycerol molecule, triacylglycerol: fatty acids
made of hydrophobic tails and hydrophyllic head: phospholipid
2 fatty acids (tails), glycerol (head), phosphate group, functional group: composition of phospholipids that form phospholipid bilayer
other lipids, like steroids, are synthesized from this: cholesterol
polymers of amino acids: proteins
amino group, carboxyl group, variable group: composition of a protein
joins amino acids and grow by addition of amino acids at the carboxyl terminus: peptide bonds
amino acid sequence: primary
arrangements of polypeptides into regular structural units, alpha helix, beta pleated sheet: secondary
arrangements of polypeptides into regular structural units: beta pleated sheet
higher level interactions of primary and secondary structure: tertiary
combinations of protein subunits into tight complexes: quarternary
DNA, RNA, stores info., polymers of nucleotides: Nucleic Acids
have a ribose backbone: RNA nucleotides
have a deoxyribose backbone: DNA nucleotides
2 types of nitrogenous bases that DNA and RNA are composed of: purines and pyrimidines
have 2 carbon rings, A/G: Purines
has 1 carbon ring, C/T - DNA, U - RNA: Pyrimidines
act as a functional group for nucleic acids: nitrogenous bases
DNA has this because bases form hydrogen bonds, A-T and C-G: structual stability
if a DNA is composed of this it will be more stable: CG clamp
does not directly involve dehyration: polymerization of nucleic acids
activated by a charged triphosphate group: nucleotides
energy from the triphosphate bond is used to...: drive polymerization
DNA is used to make more DNA: replication
DNA is used to make RNA: transcription
RNA is used to make protein: Translation
every protein has a corresponding...: gene
the chemical reactions that take place in an organism comprise its...: metabolism
...alter molecules in a series of steps: metabolic pathways
release energy by breaking down complex molecules: catabolic pathways
consume energy to build complicated molecules: anabolic pathways
facilitate every step of either pathway: enzymes
the capacity to do work - to move matter against opposite forces: energy
the energy of motion: kinetic energy
the energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure: potential energy
a form of potential energy in molecules becuase of the arrangement of atoms: chemical energy
states that energy cannot be create or destryoed, we must acquire energy from other sources: 1st law of thermodynamics
states that every energy transformation makes the universe more disordered: 2nd law of thermodynamics
for something to happen without energy input, it must...: increase disorder
maintaining complex bodies requires...: energy
the portion of energy that can be harnessed to perform work: free energy
release energy (free energy goes down): exergonic reactions
require energy (free energy goes up): endergonic reactions
the conversion of ATP to ADP and Pi cause a reduction in...: free energy
for many chemical reactions, there is an energy barrier called...: the energy of activation
enzymes reduce the energy of activation by stabilizing reaction intermediates with...: an active site
because of these, we can store energy in the complex state of molecules and we can use the stored energy to perform work: energy barriers
how to change the abundance of enzymes: transcription, translation, and degradation
how to change the shape of enzymes: allosteric activators, allosteric inhibitors, and covalent modifications
alter tertiary or quarternary structure by binding in a way that stabilizes the active site of an enzyme: allosteric activators
de-stabilize the active site of an enzyme: allosteric inhibitors
include adding or removing phosphate groups: covalent modifications
surrounds all cells: plasma membrane
semifluid substance within the membrane: cytosol
all cells contain chromosomes made of...: DNA and associate proteins
tiny organelles that make proteins using the instructions from messenger RNA: ribosomes
in prokaryotes, the DNA is concentrated in... no membrane separates it from the rest of the cell: the nucleoid
in eukaryotes, chromosomes are within a...: membranous nuclear envelope
in eukaryotes, this is the region between nucleus and plasma membrane: cytoplasm
eukaryotes have a variety of ... of specialized form and function: membrane-bound organelles
eukaryotes are...than prokaryotes, reflecting surface-area-to-volume trade-off: larger
...allows eukaryotes to get by with smaller ratios, larger size: enhanced complexity
contains most genes and is enclosed by double membrane: nucleus
formed by fusing of double membrane, can allow macromolecules to pass: nuclear pores
inside of the nucleus, a network of intermediate filaments that maintain shape: nuclear lamina
within nucleus, DNA and associated proteins form fibrous material: chromatin
when cell prepares to divide, chromatin fibers coil up into...: chromosomes
in nucleus region of densely packed chromatin: nucleolus
where ribosomal RNA is synthesized and combines with proteins to form ribosomal subunits: nucleolus
subunits pass through nuclear pores to cytoplasm where they combine to form...: ribosomes
to perform protein synthesis, ribosomes use...: mRNA and tRNA
carry out protein synthesis - translation: ribosomes
made of rRNA and proteins, use mRNA as template, use tRNA to translate genetic code into amino acid sequence: translation
used to translate genetic code into amino acid sequence: tRNA
invaginations of nuclear membrane: endoplasmic reticulum
site of protein transcription, makes proteins headed for membrane or for secretion: Rough ER
functionally diverse; makes lipids, metabolizes carbs, becomes calcium store in muscle cells, detoxifies poisons: Smooth ER
receives vessicles from the ER and sends vesicles to destination organelle: Golgi Body
the side that receives vesicles from the ER: Cis
like stacks of pita, each modifying molecules in different ways; add and modify sugars, adds molecular tages to molecules to sort them: Cisternae
side that sends vesicles to destination organelle: trans
originate from golgi, fuse w/ food vacuoles to digest, very low pH, hydrolysis, ensures escaped enzymes cant function in normal cytosol: lysosomes
not part of endomembrane system, make H2O2, grows by incorporating lipids and proteins made in cytosol: Peroxisomes
highly reactive, breaks down fatty acids: H2O2
organelles that convert energy to forms that cells can use for work, not part of the endomembrane system: mitochondria and chloroplasts
their proteins come primarily from free ribosomes in the cytosol and a few from their own ribosomes: mitochondria and chloroplasts
mitochondria and chloroplasts have small quantities of...that direct synthesis of the polypeptides produced by these internal ribosomes: DNA
mitochondria and chloroplasts grow and reproduce as...: semiautonomous organelles
sites of cellular respiration, generating ATP from the catabolism of sugars, fats, and other fuels in the presence of oxygen: Mitochondria
Mitochondria have a smooth outer membrane and a highly folded inner membrane called...: cristae
presents ample surface area for the enzymes that synthesize ATP, creates a fluid-filled space between membranes: cristae
site of photosynthesis in plants and eukaryotic algae: chloroplasts
chloroplasts convert solar energy to chemical energy and synthesize new organic compounds from CO2 and H2O to make...: glucose
the chloroplast is one of several members of a generalized class of plant structures called: plastids
store starch in roots and tubers: amyloplasts
store pigments for fruits and flowers: chromoplasts
the chloroplast produces sugar via...: photosynthesis
chloroplasts gain their color from high levels of this green pigment: chlorophyll
have DNA that can replicate independently of nuclear DNA, have ribosomes drives from their own DNA, have double membranes: common traits of mitochondria and plastids
symbiotic relationship that leads to one organism engulfing another: endosymbiosis
close interaction between 2 species in which both benefit: symbiosis
DNA sequence that codes for rRNA and protein suggests these genes are more closely related to...than they are to genes in the nucleus: homologous genes in bacteria
complext network of protein filaments found throught the cytoplasm: cytoskeleton
stabilizes shape, generates movement, moves cell, direct intracellular traffic: cytoskeleton
hollow rods made of tubulin: microtubules
microtubules are made up of these which separate chromosomes during cell division: centrioles
microtubules are major components of...: motility structures
microtubules use this as a molecular motor: dynein
stabilize cell shape and anchor organelles: intermediate filaments
intermediate filaments make up the...: nuclear lamina
intermediate filaments include diverse kinds of...: proteins
intermediate filaments are the most... of cytoskeletal elements: stable
are polymers of the molecule actin: microfilaments
microfilaments contribute to...by pulling: cell shape
microfilaments use...as molecular motor, important for muscle contraction: myosin
proteins that change shape when phophorylated by ATP: molecular motors
cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded in one or both halves: fluid mosaic model
proteins that span both halves of lipid bilayer: integral proteins
proteins that are loosely associated with hydrophilic portions of integral proteins: peripheral proteins
proteins are..., both hydrophobic and hydrophilic: amphipathic
hyrdrophobic portions are...: anchored in the membrane
hydrophilic portions are...: in cytosol
fluidity of the membrane is shaped by particular...used and by abundance of...: phospholipids...cholesterol
cell is encased in lipids in order to control: movement into and out of the cell
molecules that dissolve in lipid bilayer and cross easily: hydrophobic
pass through membrane with difficulty: ions and polar molecules
regulate the transport of ions and polar molecules: proteins
movement of molecules across membrane w/o using energy, includes diffusion and facilitated diffusion: passive transport
tendency of molecules of any substance to spread out in the available space, driven by kinetic energy: diffusion
in the absence of other forces, a substance will diffuse down its..., decreases free energy and increases entropy by creating a randomized mixture: concentration gradient
diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane, a kind of passive transport: osmosis
3 types of solutions: hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic
solutions with the same solute concentration: isotonic
passive movement of molecules down a concentration gradient via a transport protein: facilitated diffusion
moves molecules against their concentration gradient using energy: active transport
transport protein changes conformation in response to ATP-dependent phosphorylation: allosteric transport
concentration gradient of 1 solute actively maintained w/ ATP, potential energy in conetration gradient used to change protein shape and transport 2nd solute, role of ATP is indirect: co-transport
moves molecules outward, involves movement of vesicles from the golgi appartus to the plasma membrane: exocytosis
important means of secreting enzymes, hormones, and neurotransmitters: exocytosis
moves molecules into the cells, involves taking extracellular material by forming vesicles: endocytosis
3 types of endocytosis: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis
engulfing, specific: phagocytosis
drinking, non-specific: pinocytosis
highly specific: receptor-mediated endocytosis
breakdown of food products, particularly proteins and nucleic acids, leaves behind ammonia: nitrogenous wastes
excretion technique that is cheap in terms of transport and metabolism: fish let ammonia diffuse out passively
excretion technique that is much less toxic, requires some metabolic investment: mammals combine waste products CO2 and NH3 to make urea
excretion technique that has little loss of water, expensive metabolically: birds produce uric acid
how animals regulate solute concentrations and balance the gain and loss of water: osmoregulation
concentration of solutes in water: osmolarity
typically live in osmotically predictable environments: osmoconformers
face differing demands depending on their environments: osmoregulators
small tubes that are in close contact w/ transport epithelium and the blood supply: tubules
blood is filtered by...: transport epithelium
additional waste products may be secreted into...: excretory tubule
remaining, concentrated fluid is...: excreted
outer part of kidney, isotonic to blood: renal cortex
inner part of kidney, hyperosmotic: renal medulla
functional unit of kidney: nephron
blood filtered; proteins and cells left in blood; water, ions, urea go into filtrate; rate regulated by RAS: glomerulus
water, ions, nutrients reabsorbed; filtrate volume reduced; pH regulated; wastes secreted into filtrate; urea not reabsorbed: proximal tubule
permeable to water, not salts; salts and urea concentrated in the ECF of inner medulla; water movement possible b/c of osmotic gradient: descending loop of Henle
permeable to salt, not water; poorly permeable to urea; reasbsorbs NaCl: ascending loop of Henle
regulates pH; regulates amount of NaCl and K+; susceptible to ADH; water reuptake regulates final volume of urine: distal tube
final reabsorption of NaCl, water; high urea diffuses out of filtrate, maintains osmotic gradient; water leaves filtrate, determining final concentration of urine: collecting duct
steep gradient means..: concentrated urine
loop of Henle...: concentrates urea in filtrate
resorption of that urea provides a steep osmotic...: gradient in medulla
organisms that make their own food; plants: autotrophs
can synthesize any macromolecule they need from basic organic building blocks: autotrophs
organisms that get their food from other organisms; animals: heterotrophs
describes what an animal does; the nutritional needs of an animal vary with this: life history
nutrients that can't be synthesized by an animal: essential
essential nutrients: amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals
available from animal sources, plants are less reliable sources, diverse vegetarian diet balances the shortcomings of any one food source: amino acids
double bonds btw adjacent carbons, must obtain from food, abundant in most food: fatty acids
small oragnic molecules that are often incorporated into proteins to complete tertiary structure, only small amts required, water- or fat-soluble,: vitamins
simple inorganic nutrients, small amts, some required in large amts: minerals
overconsumption of these vitamins can be toxic: fat-soluble
4 major processes of nutrient acquisition: ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination
herbivores and carnivores have these for ingestion: teeth
frogs and anteaters have these for ingestion: tongues
snakes and fish have this for ingestion: jaw
herbivores need these to grind food: molars
carnivores need these to tear and rip food: canines
digestion begins with this in mammals: salivary amylase
important for digestion even though it's primarily used for storage and mechanical preparation of food: stomach
where most digestion and absorption occurs: small intestine
animals lack enzymes needed to digest this: cellulose
herbivores have specialized storage areas to...: facilitate digestion
herbivores have a longer...to give bacteria time to break down the vegetation: cecum
ruminants (cows) have ... that can break down cellulose: symbiotic microorganisms
structures aiding digestion: stomach and small intestine
stomach secretes this from separate cells: HCl and pepsinogen
when HCl and pepsinogen mix, pepsinogen is cleaved to form ...: active pepsin
small intestine begins with ...: duodenum
duodenum is where these are mixed: bile, chyme, and pancreatic juices
it digests proteins, fats, carbs, and nucleic acids through hydrolysis: small intestine
these allow the small intestine to absorb nutrients: abundant blood vessels and active transport
surface area for absorption is increased by these: villi and microvilli
ensures that available food stores are mobilized during times of need and stored in times of plenty: feedback
they hormones regulate nutrition by regulating feeding behavior and food preferences: insulin and glucagon
energy is used to make ATP through this: cellular respiration
respiration occurs in 3 metabolic stages: glycolysis, krebs cycle, and electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation
process of breaking down glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules in the cytosol: glycolysis
breaking down a derivative of pyruvate into CO2, in the mitochondrial matrix: krebs cycle
both occur in the mitochondria, this is where most of the ATP is made: Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation
a sequence of electron carrier molecules that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy to make ATP: electron transport
the production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain: oxidative phosphorylation
ATP, glucose, and glycogen energy currency: bioenergetics
readily available but not abundant: ATP
go through process to convert it: Glucose
last resort for energy: glycogen
much of an animal's energy is converted to...: heat
balance energy budgets against benefits of consistent high temp.: thermoregulation
for every...change in temp, reaction rates increase by ...: 10 C...2-3 times
constant temp means: reliable reaction rates for cellular processes
2 basic bioenergetic strategies used by animals: ectotherms, endotherms
derive heat from envir., less energy loss: ectotherms
derive heat from celluar work, heat is generated by metabolism, more energy cost: endotherms
principles of heat transfer: radiation, evaporation, conduction, convection
constricting blood vessels to insulate heat: vasoconstriction
dilation of blood vessels to emit heat: vasodilation
sweat, pant, bathe skin: evaporative heat loss

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