Public Speaking Final
Terms
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- Dynadic Communication
- Communication between 2 people, as in conversation
- Small Group Communication
- A small number of peope who can see and speak a large audience of unknown people
- Public Speaking
- A speaker delivers a message with a specific purpose to an audience of people who are present during the delivery of the speech
- Feedback
- Listener response to a message
- Goal of Communication
- Shared meaning
- Speech Context
-
All of the factors affecting the speech:
-Audience
-course assignment
-physical setting
-occasion
-situation - Ethnocentrism
- Assuming superior stance saying that your ethnicity or religion is better then others
- Rhetoric
- The practice of oratory
- Invention
- Adapting speech information to the audience in order to make your case
- Arrangement
- Organizing the speech in ways that are best suited to the topic and the audience.
- Style
- specific word choices
- Memory
- The practice of the speech until it can be artfully delivered
- Delivery
- Vocal and nonverbal behavior you use when speaking
- Pre-Preperation Anxiety
- Feeling anxious the minute they know they will be giving a speech
- Preperation Anxiety
- anxiety that arises while preparing for the speech
- Pre-Performance Anxiety
- anxiety while rehersing your speech
- Performance Anxiety
- anxiety just before the speaking begins. This is the most pronunced during the introduction of the speech
- Visualization
- exercise that requires the speaker to close his or her eyes and visualize a series of positive feelings and reactions that will occur on the day of the speech
- Ethics
- the study of moral conduct
- Ethos
- appealing to a listener's moral character
- Free Speech
- the right to be free from unreasonable constrants on expression
- Fighting Words
- speech that provokes people to violence
- Defamatory statement
- one that politically harms an individual's reputation at work or in the community(slander)
- Values
- people's most enduring judgements about what's good and bad in life(hardest to change)
- Instrumental Values
- characteristics you value in yourself and others
- Terminal Values
- states of being you consider important and they are desirable ends in themselves(happiness, world peace, etc.)
- Trustworthiness
- combination of honesty and dependability
- Plagiarism
- the passing off of another person's information as ones own
- Paraphrase
- restatement of someone else's ideas, opinions, or theories in the speaker's own words.
- Circular Response
- continual flow, or feedback, between speaker and listener
- Hearing
- the physiological process of hearing sound
- Listening
- the conscious act of recognizing, understanding, and accurately interpresting the messages communicated by others
- Selective Perception
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-We pay attention to what we hold to be important
-We pay attention to information that touches our experiences and backgrounds
-We sort and filter new information on the basis of what we already know - Active listening
- focused, purposeful listening
- Listening distraction
- anything that competes for attention that you are trying to give to something else
- External listening distraction
-
anything in the environment:
-noise
-movement
-light
-darkness
-heat
-cold
-etc. - Internal listening distraction
- thoughts and feelings, both positive and negative, that intrude on our attention.
- Defensive listening
- occurs when we sense that our attitudes or opinions are being challanged
- Critical thinking
- the ability to evaluate claims based on the basis of well-supported reasons
- Overgeneralizations
- unsupported conclusions
- Either-Or thinking
- thinking that is dominated by just Two(2) choicesl creates false dilemmas that do not in fact exist
- Demographic characteristics
- ratio of male to females; racial and ethnic differences represented in the group; noticeable age variations; out of state or out of the country
- Specific Purpose
- explicit statement, stated as a declarative sentence, of what you expect the speech to accumplish for the audience
- Thesis Statement
- clearly expresses the central idea of your speech in a single idea
- Main Points
- express the key ideas and major themes of the speech
- Introduction
- introduce the topic and the speaker and alert the audience members of your specific speech purpose
- Speech Body
- contains the speech's main points and subpoints, which support the speech's thesis
- Conclusion
- restates the speech purpose and reiteriates how the main points confirm it
- Coordinate points
- points that are of equal importance and are indicated by their parallel alignment in an outline
- Subordinate points
- points that are given less weight than the main points they support and are identified in outlines by their placement to the right of the points they support
- Working Outline
- contains points stated in complete sentances
- Speaking Outlines
- far briefer then working outlines and are usually prepared using short phrases or key words.
- Vocal Delivery
-
includes:
-speech volume
-rate
-pitch
-veriety
-pronunciation
-articulation - Effective Delivery
- skillful application of natural conversational behavior in a way that is relaxed, enthusiatic, and direct
- Speaking from a manuscript
- reading a speech verbatim
- Speaking from Memory
- oratory
- Speaking improptu
- speaking on a relatively short notice with little time to prepare
- Speaking extemporaneously
- speaking by preparing well and practicing in advance, giving full attention to all the facets of the speech
- Volume
- the relative loudness of a speaker's voice
- Pitch
- range of sounds from high to low
- Intonation
- what distinguishes a question from a statement
- Speaking rate
- most effective way to hold an audience's attention, as well as to convey the meaning of our speech
- Vocal Fillers
- an unnecessary and undesirable way of covering pauses such as "uh", "hmm", "you know", etc.
- Pauses
- enhance meaning by providing a type of punctuation, emphasizing a point, drawing attention to a key though, or just allowing listeners a moment to contemplate what is being said
- Vocal variety
- using all of the vocal elements, volume, pitch, rate, and pauses, to create an effective delivery
- Pronunciation
- the correct formation of word sounds
- Articulation
- the clarity or forcefulness of with which the sounds are made
- Dialects
- cultural variations on the preferred pronunciation and articulation of its languages
- Mumbling
- slurring words together at a very low level of volume and pitch so that they are barely audible
- Aural channel
- channel of communication that is made up of the vocalizations that form and accompany spoken words
- Paralanguage
- how something is said, not what is said
- Visual Channel
- channel of communication that includes the speaker's physical actions and appearance- facial expressions, gestures, general body movement, physical appearence, dress, and objects held
- Scanning
- moving your gaze from one listener to another and from one section to another, pausing as you do so to gaze briefly at each individual
- "Talking Head"
- a person who remains steadily positioned in one(1) place behind a microphone or podium
- Anecdote
- brief story of interesting, humorous, or real-life incidents
- Rhetoricial questions
- questions that do not invite actual responses. Instead they make their audience think
- Ethical appeal
- clearly establishes your professionalism
- Sign post
- words that alert the audience that your speech is concluding (finally, in conclusion, in summary, etc)
- Rhetoric devises
- techniques of language
- Cultural sensitivity
- conscious attempt to be considerate of cultural beliefs, norms, or traditions that are different from your own
- Biased Language
- any language that relies on unfound assumptions, negative descriptions, or stereotypes of a given group's age, class, gender, disability, and geographic, ethnic, racial, or religious characteristics
- Jargon
- specialized language of a given profession
- Concrete language
- specific, tangible, and definate language
- Abstract language
- language that is general or nonspecific
- Simile
- compares one(1) thing to another, using "like" or "as" to do so
- Metaphor
- compares two(2) things, but does so by describing one(1) thing as actually being the other
- Analogy
- an extended metaphor or simile that compares an unfamiliar concept or process to a more familiar one to help the listener understand the unfamiliar one
- Malapropism
- the inadvertant use of a word or phrase in place of one that sounds like it
- Denotative meaning
- meaning of word that is its literal, or dictionary, defination
- Connotative meaning
- meaning of a word that is the special association that different people bring to bear on it
- Voice
- the feature of verbs that indicates the subject's relations to the action
- Hedges
- unnecessary words and phrases that qualify or introduce doubt into statements that should be straightforward
- Alliteration
- the repetition of the same sounds, usually initial constants, in two(2) or more neighboring words or syllables
- Supporting Points
- represent the supporting material or evidence you have gathered to justify the main points and lead the audience to accept the purpose of the speech
- Coherence
- clarity and logical consistency in a speech
- Coordination and subordination
- the logical placement of ideas relative to their importance to one(1) another
- Transitions
- words, phrases, or sentence that tie the speech ideas together and enable the speaker to move smoothly from one(1) point to the next
- Internal preview
- tells the audinece what to expect next
- Internal summary
- draws together important ideas before proceeding to another speech point
- Topical pattern of arrangement
- when each of the main points of a topic is of equal importance, and when these points can be presented in any order relative to the other main points without changing the message
- Chronological pattern of arrangement
- the arrangement of main points according to their occurence in time relative to each other
- Spatical pattern of arrangement
- used when the purpose of your speech is to describe or explain the physical arrangement of a place, a scene, or an object, logic suggests that the main points be arranged in order of their physical proximity or direction relative to each other
- Cause-effect pattern of arrangement
- used in cause-effect speeches
- Problem-solution pattern of arrangement
- the main points are organized to demonstrate the nature and significance of a problem and then to provide justification for a proposed solution
- Narrative pattern of arrangement
- used in a speech that consists of a story or a series of short stories
- Circle pattern of arrangement
- speaker develops one(1) idea, which leads to another, which leads to a third(3rd), and so forth until he or she arrives back at the speech thesis
- Rhetorical situation
- the overall speech situation
- Informative speech
- increases the audience's understanding and awareness of a topic
- Persuasive speech
- increases the audience's understanding and awareness of a topic
- Special occasion speeches
- includes speeches of introduction, speeches of acceptance, speeches of presentation, roasts and toasts, eulogies, and after-dinner speeches, among others
- Brainstorming
- a problem-solving technique that involves the spontaneous generation of ideas
- Examples
- illistrate, describe, or represent things
- Testimony
- first(1st)hand findings, eyewitness accounts, and opinions by people, both lay and expert
- Expert testimony
- any findings, eyewitness accounts, or opinions by professionals who are trained to evaulate or report on a given topic
- Lay testimony
- testimony by nonexperts
- Facts
- represent documented occurences, including actual events, dates, times, people involved, and places
- Statistics
- summarized data that measure the size or magnitude of something, demonstrate trends, or show relationships
- Descriptive statistics
- statistics that describe things
- Inferential statistics
- statistics that help predict things
- Primary research
- original or first(1st) hand research, such as interviews and surveys conducted by you, the speaker
- Secondary research
- the vast world of information gathered by others
- Vague questions
- questions that don't give the person being interviewed enough to go on
- Leading questions
- questions that encourage, if not force, a certain response and reflect the interviewer's bias
- Loaded questions
- questions that are phrased the reinforce the interviewer's agenda
- Reference librarians
- information specialists who are trained to help you in your search
- Encylopedias
- summarize knowledge that is found in original form elsewhere
- Atlas
- collection of maps, text, and accompying charts and tables
- Fabrication
- making up of information
- Prop
- live or inanimate object
- Model
- three(3)-dimensional, scale-size representation of an object
- Pictures
- two(2)-dimensional representations of people, places, ideas, or objects produced on an opaque backing
- Diagram
- explains how something is constructed or operated
- Map
- representation of a whole or a part of an area on a a flat surface
- Poster
- large, bold, two(2)-dimensional design incorperating words, shapes, and, if desired, color, placed on an opaque backing
- Graph
- represents numerical data in a visual form
- Line Graph
- graph that displays measurement, usually plotted on the horizontal axis, and units of measurement or values, which are plotted on the vertical axis
- Bar Graph
- graph that uses bars of varying lengths to compare quantities or magnitudes
- Chart
- visually organizes complex information into compact form
- Flowchart
- diagram that shows step-by-step progression through a procedure, a relationship, or a process
- Organizational chart
- illustrates the organizational structure or chain of command in an organization
- Table
- systematic grouping of data or numerical information in column form
- Audio clip
- short recording of sounds, music, or speech
- Vide
- includes movie, television, and other recording segements
- Multimedia
- combines several media(stills, sound, video, text, and data) into a single production
- Overhead transparency
- an image on a transparent background that can be viewed by transmitted light, either directly or through a projection onto a screen or a wall
- LCD projector
- comes with an illumination or light source, which eliminates the need for an overhead projector
- Flip chart
- a large pad of paper on which a speaker can illistrate speech points
- Chalkboard
- write on with chalk; lowest tech visual aid
- Handout
- page-size items that convey information that is either impractical to give the audience in another manner or intended to be kept by audience members after the presentation
- Eight by eight rule
- in a PowerPoint, don't use more than eight words in a line and eight lines on a side
- Typeface
- specific style of lettering(Arial, Times New Roman, or Courier)
- Fonts
- sets of sizes and upper and lower case of typeface
- Serif typefaces
- typefaces that include small flourishes, or strokes, at the tops and bottoms of each letter
- Sans serif typefaces
- typefaces that are more block like and linear
- Operational definition
- defines somethnig by describing what it does
- Definition by negation
- defines something by explaining what it is not
- Definition by example
- defines something by providing examples of the subject under discussion
- Definition by synonym
- defines something by comparing it with another term that has equivalent meaning
- Definition by etymology
- defining something by account of the word's history
- Small group
- group consisting of three(3) to twenty(20) people
- Presentational speaking
- reports delivered by individuals or groups within the business or professional environment
- Agenda
- identifies the items to be accomplished during a group meeting
- Interpersonal roles
- styles of interacting in the group
- Counterproductive roles
- negitive interpersonal roles
- Personal-based conflict
- members argue about one(1) another instead of about the issues
- Issues-based conflict
- allows members to test and debate ideas and potential solutions.
- Groupthink
- the tendency to accept information and ideas without subjecting them to critical analysis
- Persuasive speaking
- speech that is intended to influence the attitudes, beliefs, values and acts of others
- Logos
- term that refers to persuasive appeals directed at the audience's reasoning on a topic
- Syllogism
- three(3)-part arguement consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion
- Major premise
- general case
- Minor premise
- specific case
- Enthymeme
- syllogism presented as a probability rather than an absolute, and it states either a major or a minor premise but not both
- Pathos
- appealing to a listener's emotions
- Expectancy-Outcome Values Theory
- states that each of us consciously evaluates the potential costs and benifits associated with a particular action
- Central processing
- when we are motivated and able to think critically about the content of a message
- Preipheral processing
- when we lack the motivation to pay close attention to the issues
- Speaker credibility
- a speaker's expertise, trustworthiness, speaker similarity , and pyhsical attractiveness
- Audience analysis
- process of gathering and analyzing information about your listeners with the explicit aim of adopting your message to the information you uncover
- Attitudes
- reflect a predisposition to respond to people, ideas, objects, or events in an evaluative way(positive attitude towards reading = like to read
- Beliefs
- the ways in which people perceive reality; our feelings about what is true(I believe God exists)
- Perspective taking
- seeing things from your listeners' point of view
- Target audience
- those individuals within the broader audience whom you are most likely to infouence in the direction you seek
- Demographics
- statistical characteristics of a given population
- Co-culture
- social communtiy whose perceptions and beliefs differ significantly from yours
- Close-ended questions
- designed to elicit a small range of specific answers supplied by the interviewer
- Fixed-alternative questions
- questions that contain a limitd choice of answers, such as "yes", "no", and "sometimes"
- Scale questions
- questions that measure the responent's level of agreeement or disagreement with specific issues
- Open-ended questions
- designed to allow respondents to elaborate as much as they wish
- Similarities Between Public Speaking and Other Forms of Communication
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-Sensitivity to listeners
-Easy to follow
-Believable
-Relevant
-Interesting
-Speaker must be knowledgeable, unbiased, and clear - Differences Between Public Speaking and Other Forms of Communication
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-Opportunity for feedback
-Preparation
-Degree of Formality - Canons of Rhetoric
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-Invention
-Arrangement
-Style
-Memory
-Delivery - Things that Cause Anxiety
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-Lack of public speaking experience
-Feeling different from members of the audience
-Uneasiness about being the center of attention - Types of Anxiety
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-Pre-Preperation
-Preperation
-Pre-Performance
-Performance - Ways to Make Your Anxiety Subside
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-Manage your time wisely
-Focus on research to be familiar with subject
-Learn as much about your audience and speech environment as possible - Qualities a Speaker Must Have(Creates speaker's ethos)
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-Competence
-Character
-Goodwill - Types of Speech that are not Protected
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-Fighting words
-Defamatory speech
-Reckless disregard for the truth - Types of Values
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-Instrumental
-Terminal - Things You want to Avoid When Speaking
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-Jargon
-Ethnocentrism
-Stereotypes
-Hate Speech - Responsible Speakers
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-Evaluate usefulness of topic
-Use sound evidence and reasoning
-Strive for accuracy
-Present speech ethnically - Barriers to Active Listening
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-Listening distractions
-Scriptwriting and defensive listening
-Laziness and overconfidence
-Cultural barriers - Becoming a More Active Listener
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-Set listening goals
-Listen for main ideas
-Watch for the speaker's nonverbal cues - Critical Thinkers
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-Evaulate the evidence
-Analyze assumptions and biases
-Assess an arguement's logic
-Resist false assumptions, overgeneralizations, either-or thinking, and other fallacies in reasoning
-Consider multiple perspectives
-Summarize and judge - Steps in the Speechmaking Process
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-Select a topic
-Analyze the audience
-State the speech purposr
-Compose a thesis statement
-Develop the main points
-Gather supporting materials
-Seperate the speech in its major parts
-Outline the speech
-Consider presentation aids
-Practice delivering the speech - General Purpose of a Speech
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-To inform
-To persuade
-To mark a special occasion - Major Parts of a Speech
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-Introduction
-Body
-Conclusion - Methods of Delivery
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-Speaking from a manuscript
-Speaking from memory
-Impromptu speaking
-Extemporaneous speaing - Factors that Determine Speaker's Volume
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-Size of the room and the number of people in the audience
-Whether of not you use a microphone
-The level of background noise - Functions of Nonverbal Communication in Delivery
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-Clarifying verbal messages
-Facilitating feedback
-Establishing relationships between speaker and audience
-Establishing speaker credibility - Functions of the Introduction
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-Arouse the audience's attention and willingness to listen
-Preview the topic and purpose of the speech
-Establish a bond with the audience
-Establish the speaker's credibility to address the topic
-Motivate the audience to accept the speaker's goals - Functions of Conclusions
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-Signal to the audience that the speech is coming to an end and provide closure
-Summarize the key points
-Reiterate the thesis or central idea of the speech
-Challange the audience to respond - Functions of Supporting Material
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-Illustrates or clarifies a point in a speech
-Elaborates on an idea
-Substantiates or proves that a statement is correct - Information Included in Citing a Source in Bibliography
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-Name of author(s) or editor(s)
-Title of publication
-Volume or edition number, if applicable
-Name of Publisher
-Place of publication
-Date and year of publication
-Page numbers on which material appears - Criteria to use when Evaluating Secondary Resources
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-What is the author's background?
-How credible is the publication?
-How reliable is the data, especially the statistical information?
-How recent is the reference? - Functions of Presentation Aids
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-Help listeners process and retain information
-Promote interest in and motivation
-Convey information concisely
-Lend a professional image - Aids to Comprehension
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-An appropriate organizational pattern
-Skillful use of language
-Effective preview statements and transitions, in addition to well-organized introductions and conclusions
-Presentation aids - Types of Informative Speeches(Speeches about)
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-Objects
-People
-Events
-Processes
-Concepts
-Issues - Steps for Making Decisions in Groups
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-Identify the problem
-Conduct research and anal ysis
-Establish guidelines and criteria
-Generate solutions
-Select the best solution
-Evaluate solutions - Making Presentations in Groups
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-Designate a team leader
-Assign roles and tasks
-Ensure consistency of delivery
-Establish a consistent format
Establish transitions between speakers
-Rehearse the presentation - What do Persuasive Speeches Do?
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-Attempt to influence audience choices
-Limit alternatives
-Seek a response - Aristotle's Forms of Rhetorical Proof
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-Logos
-Ethos
-Pathos - Elements of Ethos
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-Good sense
-Moral character
-Goodwill - Types of Demographics
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-Age
-Ethnic or cultural background
-Socioeconomic status
-Religion
-Political affiliation
-Gender - Attributes of Socioeconomic Status
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-Income
-Occupation
-Education - Females and giving speeches
- Females may experience higher anxiety then males at all stages of the speechmaking process
- How many time should you reherse your speech?
- At least 6 times
- What should Critical thinkers be looking for?
- Flaws in arguments that resist claims that have noe supporting evidence
- What is one(1) key to acheving vocal variety?
- Enthusiasm
- How much in percentage should the introduction and conclusion of your speech be comprised of?
- No more then 10 or 15 percent(10-15%) of your entire speech
- What to do when citing testimony?
- Make sure you supply the name and qualifications of the person whose testimony you use, and that you tell your listeners when and where the testimony was offered
- If you use a video in your speech......
- .....make sure it is less than 30 seconds long
- When using presentation aids.........
- .......try to present one major idea per aid
- The principle of continuity dictates that........
- ..........you apply the same design decisions you make for one(1) aid to all of the aids you display in a speech
- Use Sans Serif Typeface in.......
- .......headings
- As a public speaker.........
- .........you are accountable to your audience
- Use bold, bright colors in Power Points to...........
- .........emphasize important points