Psych

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range: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribtuion
neuron: a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
natural selection: the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
population: all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
hormones: chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another
perception: the process of organizing and interpreting sensory info, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
frequency theory: in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses, traveling up the auditory nerve, matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
sublimal: below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-colour) theory: the theory that the retina contains three different colour receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green and one to blue - which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any colour
clarvoyance (ESP): (ESP) perceiving remote events, such as sensing that a friend's house is on fire
perceptual constancy: perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, colour, shape and size) even as illumination and retinal images change
inattentional blindness: failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
nerves: neural "cables" containing many axons
limbic system: a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and agression and drives such as those for food and sex (includes the hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus)
functionalism: a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioural processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive and flourish
parallel processing: the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously, the brain's natural mode of info processing for many functions, including vision (contrasts with the step-by-step serial processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving)
telepathy (ESP): (ESP) mind-to-mind communication - one person sending thoughts to another or perceiving another's thoughts
neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons, influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
electroencephalogram (EEG): an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
frequency: the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for ex, per second)
texture gradient: a monocular cue for perceiving depth; a gradual change from a coarse distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance. objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed
frontal lobes: the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
positron emission tomography (PET) scan: a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
depth perception: the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
social-cultural (perspective): (focus) how behaviour and thinking vary acorss situations and cultures
opponent-process theory: the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable colour vision (ex. some are stimulated by green and inhibited by red, or vice versa)
cochlea: a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
biopsychosocial approach: an integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
hypothalamus: a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs several maintenance activies (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion
acuity: the sharpness of vision
interneurons: CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
dependent variable: the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulation of the independent variable
extrasensory perception (ESP): the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. said to include telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition
endorphins: "morphine within" - natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
false consensus effect: the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviours
perceptual adaptation: in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
cocktail party effect: ability to attend to only one voice among many
adrenal glands: a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys; secrete the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine, which help to arouse the body in times of stress
phi phenomenon: an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
blind spot: the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; no receptor cells are located there
statistical significance: a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occured by chance
visual cliff: a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
top-down processing: info processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
visual capture: the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses
psychophysics: the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
iris: a ring of muscle tissue that forms the coloured portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
correlational (research method): detects naturally occuring relationships; assesses how well one variable predicts another
light and shadow: a monocular cue for perceiving depth; a dimmer object seems farther away
(fMRI) functional magnetic resonance imaging: a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans (brain function)
gestalt: an organized whole - psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of info into meaningful wholes
scatterplot: a graphed cluster of dots, each of which respresents the values of two variables. the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter means high correlation)
Weber's Law: the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
parasympathetic nervous system: the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
psychodynamic (perspective): (focus) how behaviour springs from unconscious drives and conflicts
parietal lobes: the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; recieves sensory input for touch and body position
conduction hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
independent variable: the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
random sample: a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
relative size: a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away
glial cells (glia): cells in the nervous system that support, nourish and protect neurons
case study: an observational technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
sensory interaction: the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
action potential: a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. the action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane
behavioural (perspective): (focus) how we learn observable responses
motor cortex: an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
basic research: pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
sensory cortex: the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
myelin sheath: a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
colour constancy: perceiving familiar objects as having consistent colour, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
perceptual set: a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
antagonist: drug molecule that inihibits a neurotransmitter's release
illusory correlation: the perception of a relationship where none exists
medulla: the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
aphasia: impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
mode: the most frequently occuring score(s) in a distribution
threshold: the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
human factors psychology: a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
Broca's Area: controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
psychology: the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes
feature detectors: nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle or movement
inner ear: the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
correlation coefficient: mathematical expression of correlation, ranges from -1 to +1
relative motion (motion parallax): a monocular cue for perceiving depth; while you are moving, the nearer an object is, the faster IT seems to move
acetylcholine: a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction
farsightedness: a condition in which distant objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the iamge of near objects is focused behind the retina
pituitary gland: the endocrine system's most influential gland. under the influence of the hypothalamus, regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
sensorineural hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness
grouping: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
subtractive colour mixing: mixing paints, allowing fewer wavelengths to be reflected back
experimental condition: the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
cognitive (perspective): (focus) how we encode, process, store and retrieve information
empiricism: the view that knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and science flourishes through observation and experiment
psychiatry: a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (ex. drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
lens: the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
retinal disparity: a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the close the object
agonist: drug molecule that is similar enough to a neurotransmitter to mimic its effects, or may block a neurotransmitter's reuptake
monocular cues: depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory or response
wavelength: the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. electromagetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
neural networks: interconnected neural cells. with experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results
humanistic psychology: historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality in hopes of fostering personal growth
inhibitory (signals): brakes a neuron's signals
naturalistic observation: observing and recording behaviour in naturally occuring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
interposition: a monocular cue for perceiving depth; if one object partially blocks our view of another, it is perceived as closer
axon: the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
levels of analysis: the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
median: the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below
lesion: tissue destruction (ex. naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue)
nature-nurture issue: the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviours
rods: retinal receptors that detect black, white and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
corpus callosum: the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
brainstem: the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions
operational definition: a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables
cerebellum: the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
standard deviation: a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
counseling psychology: a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
signal detection theory: a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus "signal" amid background stimulation "noise". assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation and level of fatigue
replication: repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
optic nerve: the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
additive colour mixing: mixing lights, adding more wavelengths and thus increasing light
critical thinking: thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions
audition: the sense or act of hearing
difference threshold: the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time - experienced as a just noticeable difference (jnd)
experimental (research method): explores cause and effect
survey: a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviours of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them
structuralism: an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind
cones: retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions, detects fine detail and give rise to colour sensations
sympathetic nervous system: the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
Wernicke's Area: controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
accomodation: the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
gate-control theory: the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. the "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by info coming from the brain
relative height: a monocular cue for perceiving depth; objects higher in our field of vision are perceived as farther away
(MRI) magnetic resonance imaging: a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain (brain anatomy)
binocular cues: depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes
middle ear: the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
sensation: the process by which our sensory receptor and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
sensory neurons: neurons that carry incoming info from the sense receptors to the CNS
absolute threshold: the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
control condition: the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
relative clarity: a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects
plasticity: the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
clinical psychology: a branch of psychology that studies, assesses and treats people with psychological disorders
endocrine system: the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
bottom-up processing: analysis that beings with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory info
descriptive (research method): observes and records behaviour
culture: the enduring behaviours, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
random assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
nearsightedness: a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina
figure-ground: the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
split brain: a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them
parapsychology: the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
kinesthesis: the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
autonomic nervous system: the part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)
cerebral cortex: the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center
neuroscience (perspective): (focus) how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences
blindsight: phenomenon where one experiences blindness in their field of vision, but somehow knows what is there
amygdala: two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion
correlation: a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
hindsight bias: the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
hue: the dimension of colour that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the colour names blue, green, and so forth
linear perspective: a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance
vestibular sense: the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
place theory: in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
retina: the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that being the processing of visual info
intensity: the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
cochlear implant: a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
applied research: scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
reticular formation: a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controling arousal
double-blind procedure: an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have recieved the treatment or a placebo
dendrite: the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that recieve messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
decibels: measuring unit for sound energy
synaptic cleft (or gap): tiny gap at the synapse
peripheral nervous system (PNS): the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
nervous system: the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system
somatic (skeletal) nervous system: the division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles
excitatory (signals): accelerates a neuron's signals
transduction: conversion of one form of energy into another. in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sighs, sounds and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret
precognition (ESP): (ESP) perceiving future events, such as a political leader's death or a sporting event's outcome
fovea: the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
behaviour genetics (perspective): (focus) how much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences
pitch: a tone's experienced highness or lowness, depends on frequency
placebo: any effect on behaviour caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent
theory: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
convergence: a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inware when looking at an object. the greater the inward strain, the closer the object
central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord
association areas: areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking
selective attention: the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect
sensory adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
volley principle: hearing cells may alternate their firing to match a sound's frequency (for higher pitches)
motor neurons: neurons that carry outgoing info from the CNS to the muscles or glands
synapse: the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
experiment: a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behaviour or mental process (the dependent variable)
mean: the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
evolutionary (perspective): (focus) how the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one's genes
temporal lobes: the portion of the ceretal cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory info primarily from the opposite ear
pupil: the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
thalamus: the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
reflex: a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
occiptal lobes: the potion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual info from the opposite visual field
hypothesis: a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

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