APES REVIEW
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- Hypoxia
- when aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic decomposers break down the plants, the DO drops & the water cannot support life
- Most endangered species
- have a small range, require large territory or live on an island
- Effects of El Nino
- upwelling decreases disrupting food chains, N US has mild winters, SW US has increased rainfall, less Atlantic Hurricanes
- Humus
- organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms
- Commensalism
- symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits & the other is unaffected
- LI Exotic Species
- gypsy moth, Asian long horned beetle
- Nuclear Fusion
- 2 isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus. Expensive, break even point not reached yet
- Incineration advantages
- volume of waste reduced by 90% & waste heat can be used
- threshold dose
- the maximum dose that has no measurable effect
- Parts of the hydrologic cycle
- evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, infiltration
- Effects of global warming
- rising sealevel (thermal expansion), extreme weather, droughts, (famine), extinctions
- Aerobic respiration
- oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds & convert C back into CO2
- Industrial stage
- decline in birth rate, population growth slows
- Minamata Disease
- mental impairments caused by mercury
- Primary succession/Secondary succession
- development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life (lava) / life progresses where soil remains (clear cut forest, fire)
- Producer/Autotroph
- photosynthetic life
- During an El Nino year/During a Non El Nino year
- trade winds weaken & warm water sloshed back to SA / Easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South America
- Salinization of soil
- in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind
- Electricity is generated by
- using steam (from water boiled by fossil fuels or nuclear) or falling water to turn generator
- Doubling time
- rule of 70 -> 70 divided by the percent growth rate
- World Population/US Population
- 6.5 billion / 300 million
- 1st & 2nd most populated countries
- China & India
- Organic fertilizer
- slow acting & long lasting because the organic remains need time to be decomposed
- Conservation/Preservation
- allows the use of resources in a responsible manner / setting aside areas & protecting them from human activities
- Endangered Species
- Northern spotted owl (loss of old growth forest), Piping Plover (nesting areas threatened by development)
- First Law of Thermodynamics
- energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another
- Volcanoes and Earthquakes occur
- at plate boundaries (divergent, spreading, mid-oceanic ridges) (convergent, trenches) (transform, sliding, San Andreas)
- Nitrification
- ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO-3)
- Percent water on earth by type
- 97.5% seawater, 2.5 % freshwater
- Primary air pollutants
- produced by humans and nature (CO, CO2, SO2, NO, hydrocarbons, particulates)
- Radon
- radioactive gas, formed from the decay of Uranium, causes lung cancer.
- Indicator species
- species that serve as early warning that an ecosystem is being damaged ex trout
- Photosynthesis
- plants convert atmospheric C (CO2) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6)
- Replacement level fertility
- the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (2.1 developed, 2.7 developing)
- Biotic/Abiotic
- living/nonliving components of an ecosystem
- Cogeneration
- using waste heat to make electricity
- Major insecticide groups and examples
- (chlorinated hydrocarbons, DDT) (organophosphates, malathion) (carbamates, aldicarb)
- R strategist/K strategist
- reproduce early, many small unprotected offspring / reproduce late, few, cared for offspring
- BOD
- biological oxygen demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials
- Energy flow in food webs
- only 10% of the usable energy is transferred because usable energy lost as heat (2nd law), not all biomass is digested & absorbed, predators expend energy to catch prey
- Assimilation
- inorganic N is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins
- Mutualism
- symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit
- Photochemical Smog
- formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O)
- Alternative energy sources
- wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells
- Most important thing affecting population growth
- low status of women
- Aquifer
- any water bearing layer in the ground
- Cons of Petroleum
- reserves depleted soon, pollution during drilling, transport and refining, burning makes CO2
- In natural ecosystems, 50-90% of pest species are kept under control by:
- predators, diseases, parasites
- Acid deposition
- caused by sulfuric and nitric acids resulting in lowered pH of surface waters
- Salt water intrusion
- near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the aquifer
- sources of mercury
- buring coal, Compact Flourescent bulbs
- Ozone
- (Formation: secondary pollutant, NO2 + UV = NO + O O+ O2 = O3, with VOC's) (Effects: respiratory irratant, plant damage) (reduction: reduce NO emissions & VOC's)
- Major source of sulfur
- buring coal
- Denitrification
- bacteria convert ammonia back into N
- Sulfur oxides
- (source: coal buring) (effects: acid deposition, respiratory irritation, damages plants) (Equation for acid formation: SO2 = O2 = SO3 + H2O = H2SO4) (reduction: scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel)
- Mutagen, teratogen, carcinogen
- causes hereditary changes, fetus deformities, cancer
- Garret Hardin & The Tragedy of the Commons
- Freedom to breed is bringing ruin to all. Global commons such as atmosphere & oceans are used by all and owned by none
- Effects of ozone depletion
- increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth
- Estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe level
- approximately 10 half-lives
- True cost/ External costs
- harmful environmental side effects that are not reflected in a products price
- Negative feedback
- when changing in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition (EX: warmer earth - more ocean evaporation- more status clouds-less sunlight reaches the ground-therefore cooler Earth
- Cone of depression
- lowering of the water table around a pumping well
- Biome
- large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals
- Ammonification
- decomposers covert organic waste into ammonia
- Preindustrial stage
- birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high
- Loam
- perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, clay
- Best solution to Energy shortage
- conservation and increase efficiency
- Natural pest control
- better agriculture practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, biopesticides, sex attractants
- Natural selection
- organisms that possess favorable adaptations pass them onto the next generation
- Sanitary landfill problems and solutions
- (leachate, liner with collection system) (methane gas, collect gas and burn) (volume of garbage, compact & reduce)
- Pros of Petroleum
- cheap, easily transported, high quality energy
- ENSO
- El Nino Southern Oscillation, see-sawing of air pressure over the S. Pacific
- Municipal solid waste is mostly
- paper and most is landfilled
- Ways to conserve water
- (agriculture, drip/tirickle irrigation) (industry, recycling) (home, use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures)
- Chlorine
- (good>disinfection of water)( bad>forms trihalomethanes)
- Transitional stage
- death rate lower, better health care, population grows fast
- Keystone species
- species whose role in an ecosystem are more important than others ex: sea otter
- Eutrophication
- rapid algal growth caused by an excess of N & P
- Particulate matter (source, effect, reduction)
- (burning fossil fuels & diesel exhaust) (reduces visibility & respitory irritation) (filtering, electrostatic preciptators, alternative energy)
- Love Canal, NY
- chemicals buried in old canal and school & homes built over it causing birth defects and cancer
- Steps in coal formation
- peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite
- LD50
- the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population
- Best way to solve waste problem
- reduce amount of waste at the source
- Malthus
- said human population cannot continue to increase..consequences will be war, famine & disease
- Phosphorus does not circulate as easily as N because
- it does not exist as a gas, but is released by weathering of phosphate rocks
- Two most serious nuclear accidents
- Chernobyl, Ukraine; Three Mile Island, PA
- Nuclear Fission
- nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons
- Pesticide pros
- saves lives from insect transmitted diseases, increases food supply, increases profits for farmers
- Largest reservoirs of C
- carbonate rocks first, oceans second
- Postindustrial stage
- low birth & death rates
- Petroleum forms from
- microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat and pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons
- Parasitism
- relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host
- Sustainability
- the ability to meet humanities current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs
- Age structure diagrams
- (broad base, rapid growth)(narrow base, negative growth)(uniform shape, zero growth)
- Second Law of Thermodynamics
- .: when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat)
- Point vs. Non Point sources
- point, from specific location such as a pipe// Nonpoint, from over an area such as runoff
- Carbon oxides
- (source: auto exhaust, incomplete combustion) (Effects: CO binds to heoglobin reducing bloods ability to cary O, CO2 contributes to global warming)
- Half life
- the time it takes for ½ the mass of a radioisotope to decay
- Carrying capacity
- the number of individuals that can be sustained in an area
- Natural radioactive decay
- unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha & beta particles
- Surface mining
- cheaper & can remove more mineral, less hazardous to workers
- Major parts of a nuclear reactor
- core, control rods, steam generator, turbine, containment building
- Leaching
- removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards
- Incineration disadvantages
- toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride --dioxin), scrubbers & electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal (contains heavy metals)
- Fecal coliform/Enterococcus
- indicator of sewage contamination
- Nitrogen Oxides
- (source: auto exhaust) (effects: acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog & ozone) (Equation for acid formation: NO + O2 = NO2 + H2O = HNO3) (Reduction: catalytic converter)
- High Quality Energy
- organized & concentrated, can perform useful work (fossil fuel & nuclear)
- Ionizing radiation
- enough energy to knock electrons from atoms forming ions, capable of causing cancer (gamma-Xrays-UV)
- Positive feedback
- when a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition (EX: warmer Earth - snow melts - less sunlight is reflected & more is absorbed, therefore warmer earth)
- Pesticide cons
- genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, biological magnification
- Nitrogen fixing
- because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia by bacteria (rhizobium)
- Low Quality Energy
- disorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air wind, solar)
- Ore
- a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine
- Excess phosphorus is added to aquatic ecosystems by
- runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer, discharge of sewage
- Greenhouse gases
- H2O, CO2, O3, CH4, CFC's Effect; they trap outgoing infrared (heat) energy causing the earth to warm
- Ozone depletion caused by
- CFC"s, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, halon, methyl bromide all of which attack stratospheric ozone
- Ways to decrease birth rate
- family planning, contraception, economic rewards & penalties
- Illuviation
- deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B)