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Mousterian tools: carefully use bone to sharpen tools, Much like Levallois tools but retouched around the edges. Hafter tools like using super glue to attach to spears.
Homo habilis: Date 2-1.6 mya Geo Dist.: East and South Africa Important sites and paleoanthropologists:Olduvai Gorge OH 7 found by Louis and Mary Leakey. Characteristics: smaller primitive fossils, brain size expanded= 610cm3, small premolars/molars, smaller face, rounder cranium, and no muscualr crests. "handy man" use simple stone tools. prognathic face, no sgaittal ridge, large incisors, curved phalanges- precision grip- important for making tools allows you to grip items between the thumb and any other fingers, Behavior: lived in habitats including lakesides, savannas, woodlands, and semiforested areas- may have lived in trees, and possible foraged and moved about aborally Diet increased metabolic cost so they needed calorie content usually found with meat eating. however only made up small part of diet, they foraged, engaged in some hunting, and used tools to enhance thei ability to process animal and plant foods.
Life Expectancy of Homo neandertalensis: 40- 45 years
Dating South African Sites: Relative methods- no numerical dates. Dates unreliable. limestone caves, fissures, sinkholes
Oldawan tools: oldest site 2.5 mya found in an Olduvai Gorge relatively easy to make. simple stone tools made by removing flakes from cores without any systematic shaping core flakes and cores were probably used as tools. Proposed uses butchering, woodworking, and basking open bones.
Extracted foods: come from things that do not move but are protected in some way. These things ust be processed before they can be eaten. EX. fruits with hard skins, termites, honey, insect larvae. May use tools such as sticks to improve nutrition, but these tools cannot be found (females)
Kenyanthropus platyops: Derived Species Date: 3.5 mya has recently evolved traits fossil number WT 40,000 "Flate face" Geographic distribution; East Africa Important sites and Paleoanthropoligists: Mary Leakey found by screening dirt and found thousands of little bones. Characteristics: small braincase, smalls molars set in a large flat face, nicknamed "flate- faced man", small teeth, little postcranial information.
Austrailopithecus bahrelghazali: Date 3.3 mya Geographic Dist.: Central Africa Important Sites: Bahr el Ghazal Koro Toro in the country of Chad in north central Africa. Caharcteristics: Parabolic dental arcade- tooth row that gently curves a derived feature.
Homo sapiens sapiens: Date: 160 kya. Geographic distribution: Gobal. Characteristics: anatomoically modern humans Darived feature, smaller flatter face, external chin- unique, smaller teeth and jaws, rounded occipital, vertical forehead- important, reduced browridges, pyramidal mastoid process- triangular unique lygamits in throat attached has to do with language, canine fossa- scooped out area in bone where upper canines would be- unique, lest robust post crania- reduction in thickness.
Early archaic Homo sapiens: homo heidelbergensis
Genetic Evidence: Multi dispersal evidence. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) maternal inheritance- passed from mother to offspring, high mutation rate- but constant, so you can measure divergence rates, high copy number. Study results- African populattions are the most variable so there are more mutations- a constant mutation rate means that they have been around longer. This allows us to trace ancestory through maternal line, mutation rate as a genetic clock- African population diverged about 200 kya, African population dispersed about 150-80 kya. Y Chromosome date- low mutation rate. Paternal inheritance. Study results- Agree with mtDNA and recent African Origin Model.
Mosaic evolution: These things evolving 1 at a time, Define us as people 1. obligate and habitual bipeds 2. large brain 3. use technology/ tools
neandertalensis mtDNA: Diverged about 315 kya Neandertal is a dead end, did not contribute to modern humans.
Homo floresiensis: Date: 95- 11 kya Geo. Dist.: island of Flores "hobit people". Believe they died out gradually. Flores was never connected to anyother island so the species never spread. LB1 Female. Height 1 m. Brain Size 360 cm3. sophisticated tools descendant of Homo erectus, small size because of island dwafism stegadont and floreans other smaller mammals EX rat become larger because of fewer predators. Microcephaly because the brain size is so small is it a species or not. valid because they were complex invalid because it was too small not enough fossils believed to be wiped out by modern people.
Megadontia Quotient (MQ): measure of premolar/ molar tooth area relative to other dentition
Early misinterpretations about Homo neandertalensis: La Chapelle; Boule; 1908- PRIMITIVE, extinct human- french anthropologist created the preconcieved idea of our ancestors and played up the apelike features
Oldawan toolmakers: Possible australopithecine species- A. garhi, P. Robustus- stone and other material tools. Early homo speices- habilis and rudolfensis.
Complex foraging early hominins: Arhceological evidence- oldawan tools, found in the Olduvai Gorge 2-1.5mya layer after layer of fossilized animal bones and stoned artifacts, Bovid hooved animals found in mass. where were the stones used for them. Taphonomic evidence- carnivor activity- carnivore leave a v shape in bone oldawan tools leave a serated mark however they found both marks so hominin were getting there first carni next vice versa. Acquired meat through scavenging this was very dangerous. More were scavengers than hunters and had home bases. Tools caches, butchering- water holes brought predators so they left tools so they had resources to butcher the animal if the chance arose.
Homo neandertalensis: Extreme cold, land bridges connected many parts of the world and there were many large herbivores animals. Date: 300-27kya. Geographic Distribution: Europe and Southwest Asia. Important Site: Sima de los Huesos, Spain. Characterisitics: Skull was rounded long and low, brain size= 1245- 1740 cm3 (avg 1520, today 1320) occipital bun, double arched massive brow ridges, enormous nose, mid facial prognathism, small cheek teeth, taurodont molars- unique enlarged pulp chamber, fused roots, large heavily worn front teeth- unidirectional scratches why? because they used their teeth as tools, retromolar space- unique, robust heavily muscled bodies, thick bowed legs, large load bearing joints- hips must be larger, extensive muscular attachments, large barrel shaped rib cage, wide finger tips. Behavior: mousterian tools similar to levallois tools but are retouched around the edges, also made Chatelperronian tools, more versatile and may have been attached to ahandle increasing efficiency so you can apply force. Scaveneged wild plants, buried dead and jewlery and sculptures found. Hunted large animals- known because of neandertal injuries. Settlements: open sites, caves rock shelters. Believed to be canibals. Language- FOX P2 gene which is the language DNA was found in neandertals
How many species: Size difference, diff species of just sexual dimorphism, KNM-ER 1813- 1. smaller face 2. smaller body 3. smaller brain size 4. miderate browridges 5. long arms/ short legs 6. curved fingers and toes. KNM-ER 1470 1. larger face 2. larger body 3. larger brain 4. reduced brow ridge 5. long legs 5. straight toes. 1-3 support sexual dimorph 4-6 diff species.
Paranthropus boisei: Date 2.2- 1.3 mya Geo Dist: East Africa found in multiple sites Important sites and paleoanthropologists: Mary Leakey found first boisei subject in Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania initially known as Zinjanthropus boisei OH 5 "Dear Boy" found 1950 dear boy because so happy to find fossil after 25 years. Characteristics: Brain size- 510 cm3 larger, molariform premolars- teeth size of molars 2-3 cusps on premolars, Megadont molars- molars were as big as quarters, hyper robust- robust features REALLY exxagerated, sexually dimorphic- much more than people today,
Pleistocene/ archaic hominins: archaic homosapiens, cold period immense glaciers, this had an effect on the species.
Paranthropus aethiopicus: Earliest representative of the robust group. Date: 2.6 mya Geographic Dist. East Africa Important sites and paleoanthropologists: Richard Leakey found WT 17,000 "Black Skull" soil stained skull Characteristics, Robust Features, Compound Sagittal/ nuchal crest- unique sagittal crest is so long it runs into the nuchal crest (chewing muscles), brain size= 410 cm3, extreme prognathism, and prominent post orbital constriction, borad dish shaped face, almost no forehead, widely flared zygomatic arches, very large molar teeth, braincase= 410 cc. nothing is known about the postcranial skeleton of this species.
Robust vs. Gracile: Robust larger in body size, greater muscularity in the skull and post cranial, emphasizes important differences in proportions of dental and cranial traists, larger in skull morphology, and dentitions, obviously specialized for a diet of hard foods such as tubers, seeds, nuts, and hard skinned fruit. Gracile- skull more lightly built. Do no have super robust chewing apparatus
Dating East African Sites: Chronometric methods 1. Potassium argon- use potassium in volcanic extrusives.
Piltodown Man: A. Smith Woodward, 1912. Human fossil found in N. England madible and skull found- fossil fit preconcieved notion, but madible did not mathc. Until the 1950s this was a good fossil. Using the fluorine analysis a relative dating method they found that the skull was 10,000 years old, but the madible was modern.
Anatomical changes for bipedalism: formamen magnum a key component palenathropologists look at. 1. Pelvis- wider, flaring ilium (this allows butt muscles to attach to ilium and femur for balance). Chimp ilium is narrow and flat. Long femoral neck area between head and chaft of femur, a chimps is short. Abductor muscles/ dluteal muscles are forward thiskeeps your from falling when unbalanced, a chimp walks side by side. Sacrum is short and wide, a chimps is long and narrow. Spine- number of vertebrae in each region and lumbar vertebrae size, humans have fewer thoracic and lumbar, first is smaller than fifth where chimps are all equal in size. Curves in spine- kyphosis shirt in back tall in front, concave curve in thoracic vert. lordosis- convex curve in lumbar vert. tall in back short in front. Knee joint- bicondylar angle= valgus knee this is the center of gravity. human femur is angle into the center of the body, its and angling femur you transfer upper body weight onto knees and feet.Foot- large tarsals long metatarsals; straight, short phalanges this gives us a strong platform our big toe allows humans to push off. Longitudinal arch- non opposable big toe in line with the rest of the toes.
Early Hominin Taxonomy: Relationships between early and later species, relationships among robust species, the ancestor to Homo is unknown.
Levallois Technique: 300kya get more cutting edge for effort. Produce flakes struck from prepared cores complex techinique.
Australopithecus garhi: Derived Species Date 2.5 mya Geo Dist. East Africa Important sites:Middle Awash region of Ethiopia Characteristics: looks primitive derived trait, found with stone tools animals killed with stone tools, large premolars and molars, incisors also very large, parallel tooth rows, prgnathic face, long femur.
Robust Forms- East Africa: shared features of Paranthropus/ is same genus. Has sagital crest, excess of chewing bone, nuchal crest- large neck muscle, supraorbital torus- unibrow continuous bar of bone, large temporal fossa, flaring zygomatics, postorbital constriction. ate hard foods so it had large premolars and molars
Homo heidelbergensis: Date: 600-200 kya Geographic Distribution: Africa, Europe, India, China. Characteristics: larger brain size: 1100-1450cm3 ( same as modern human), skull- more vertical sides, more rounded occipitals (back of skull), long low skull, very thick cranial bones, large, prognathic face, very large browridges, no external chin (hallmark of modern people), robust postcrania Behavior/Culture: Acheulean tools and Levallos, ate fruit, vegetables, seeds, marine life, and bird eggs, scavenge and gathered food, made temporary structures. Big game hunting by using the cliff drive 250 kya drove animals off a cliff to their death. Created wood throwing spears 400 kya modern javalen.
How long did H. erectus live?: Lived for a long time the oldest sites in Turkana were dated 1.8 mya and the youngest sites in Ngandong dated 25 kya.
The human revolution/ cultural behavior: The upper paleolithic- Europe 50 kya. modern human behavior is a dramatic change in culture. Blade tools- look like a knife blade- long, thin, flat, and sharp 6 in. in length, increased cutting edge. diverse tool kit- distinctive and stereo typed shapes a mental model, tool types matched tool tasks they had a specific purpose. Non stone tools- bone, ivory and antler. Transport of raw materials over long distances. Weapons- increases distance and power EX. Atlatl- 14 kya only animal species that can kill at a distance with accuracy, Bow and arrow- 10 kya. Symbolic behavior- ritual burials (skulls stained with okre) grave goods. Expressive culture- engraved tools and weapons decorate object not art for arts sake because they were constantly moving, but decorate objects they use frequently, sculptures- 32 kya venus figurines for fertility or **** unknown. Jewlery, cave art- 20 kya europe, painted, sculpted, and engraved cave walls, paint: okre, iron oxides, manganese- grind pigment add saliva= paint. almost all animal art. UP subsistence and social organization- proficient hunters- animals, fish birds. Lived at higher population densities, lived longer, less likely to suffer serious injury or disease. Shelters- 28 kya. Siberia was one big grassland so they created temporary shelters, used mammoth for shelter and used all other parts. Clothing- 22 kya bone awls used for needles, caps shirts pant and shoes.
What is a hominin: Scientific name for modern people and bipedal ancestors; the division called a tribe in the superfamily Hominoidea that includes humans and our recent ancestors
Encephalization Quotient (EQ): ration of brain to body size, and EQ of 1 indicates a brain size expected for that mammalian body size.
Habitual and obligate biped: When on the ground the only way they locomote is on their feet
Paranthropus robustus: Robust form. Date 2-1 mya. Geo Dist: South Africa. Important sites and paleoanthropologists: Robert Brim. SK 48 male speicmen Characteristics: Brain size= 530cm3, anterior pillars, sexually dimorphic, broad flaring zygomatics, sagittal crests, post orbital constriction, large temporal fossa, and very large premolars, and molars.
Homo neandertalensis adaptation to conserve heat: short stature, large torso, short arms and legs, built like and eskimo. Crural index like modern lapp- reindeer herders.
H. erectus or ergaster: erectus is built to travel with long legs and long stride length found in E. Africa and SE. Asia, E. europe. Egraster- African homo Morphological differences- exaggerated feature in Asian forms Ex. supraorbital torus. Evolutionary forces- reduced gene flow and less drift. Asia/ erectus= oldewan tools. Africa/ ergaster= achuelean tools. Erectus was more of a hunter, Ergaster included meat in diet but were scangers.
Movius line: seperates African and Asian tool types. Why no Achuelean tools in Asia? raw material was not available they used bamboo instead- very dense wood.
Dental Arcade Types:: U shaped- parallel tooth rows, modern gorilla. V shaped- Early hominin Afarensis. Parabolic- Modern Human
Late archaic Homo sapiens: Homo neandertalensis
Primitive Forms: Australopithecus anamensis, 4.2-3.9 mya. They have a clear mix of ape and human characteristics Found in E. Africa by Leakey- bipedal parallel sided tooth rows ape-like, long simian shelf a feature on the inside of an apes madible- extra bonescooped out area sectorial premolar (shearin complex).
Bipedalism first: Human ancestors have a small brain, but were bipedal.
Austrailopithecus Afarensis: Is a primitive form Dates: 3.9- 3 mya. Geographic Distribution: E. Africa Important sites and paleoanthropologists: Hadar, D. Johanson found the first afarensis fossil in Hadar takes credit for the find, but a Grad student- Grey actually found it. AL 333 an area where a catastrophic assemblage occured, 13 individuals found. AL 288-1 Lucy was found at Hader, Johanson found a male afarensis skull and settled the controversy of whether afarensis is sexually dimorphic or two species. Latoli, found by Mary Leakey she found fossilized footprints in volcanic ash of afarensis- more evidence that this species was a habitual biped. Characteristics: projecting canines, canine diastema, parallel sided tooth rows, semi sectorial premolar- unique no other fossil species has this characteristic, facial prognathism- sticks out in front, postorbital constriction maxilla, 420 cm2 brain size top of skull is very constricted, sexually dimorphic males were about 55% larger, Characteristics that indicate habitual bipedalism- wide flaring ilium, short wide sacrum, valgus knee, longitudinal arch in foot, nonopposable big toe. Characteristics that indicate arborealism- curved phalanges, long arms short legs, superior orientation of shoulder joint. Behavior- lived in small nomadic groups, with multi adults and offspring, no stone tools, but it is likely they used perishable tools like chimps AKA oppotunistic tools- easily found in enviroment and modified for purpose leaves are sponges, sticks for digging, rocks for breaking. Diet- foraging diet of collected wild plants and animals, and social insects. Meat was probably attained by hunting small animals and or scavenging dead animals
Australopithecus africanus: Gracile Form Date: 3-2.4 mya Geo Dist. South Africa Important sites and paleoanthropologists: Raymond Dart found single child skull in Taung. STS 5, "Mrs. Ples" Characteristics: No Sagittal crest, nuchal crest, supraorbital torus- unibrow, dish shaped face- unique, postorbital constriction, flaring zygomatic arches- cheek bones, anterior pillars- unique, brains size= 460 cm3, sexually dimorphic
Expensive tissue hypothesis: Brain is an expensive tissure and sucks up glucose and other nutrients, so decrease gut length and increase high quality foods- Ingest high quality food that is easy to digest.
Bipedalism: 1. Cosequence of anatomy due to our suspensory ancesotr in Africa Darwin believed the upright postition on bipedalism was just another way of locomoting. 2. Cooling Effects- Sweating and evaporation, advantage in hot open enviroments. 3. Hands and carrying- eat in safety, make use and carry tools freeing hands to do other things. 4. Standing and looking 5. Running after game. 6. Harvesting fruit. 7. Sexual Signalling- get a look at genitalia
Acheulean Tools: Date: 1.6 mya referred to as biface- worked or chipped on both sides of stoned, looks like a tear drop, standardized form- they do not change over time/ generationally taught. Proposed uses- butchering, flake dispensers.
History of discovery of homo erectus: found in Indonesia. First called Pithcanthropus erectus now called Homo erectus. Found by Dubois in 1891. Trinil found femur similar to modern human and the cranium differed from the modern human Geographic Distribution: Africa, E. Europe, China, and Indonesia, 1st Homo out of Africa. Speciment 2700= Dmanisi. Name literally means upright walking human. Characteristics: thick cranial bone, less prognathic face, widest part of skull is at base, projecting nose (hot and dry temp. allows moisture to air adaptive trait), supraorbital torus, nucal torus, supraorbital sulcus- unique, sagittal torus or keel- unique (thickened area of bone on the sagittal crest, no known function), and an occipital torus, brain size= 958 cm3 60% larger than habilis. postcranial anatomy very similar to modern humans, limb bones more robust, muscle insertion areas are more emphasized. sexually dimorphic, Behavior: used a biface hand ax- Acheulean tradition prduced sharper edges, gathered a variety of wild food plants butchered, controlled fire. Body proportions- lived in tropical savanna- narrow pelvic opening Increased bipedal efficiency, increased infant dependance, reduced intestinal volume, barrel shaped chest- greater room to maintain lung function, increased body size, reduced sexual dimorphism,
Origin Theories: Multiregional Evolution Model (Wolpoff) Homo sapiens from 1.7 mya, single polyoptic species proposes that modern humans are the most recent morphological form in a species, homo sapiens, that is has been around for nearly 2 million years. This model assumes that we have an ancient rather than a recent African origin.Regional population evolve into modern population- eveolved from their areas, but gene flow kept them 1 species the idea of anagenisis- 1 species evolves into another species over time. Recent African origin- 200- 150 kya early modern people in Africa and expand from Africa. Belief that people evolved more recently and only in Africa. All evolved from African origin and moved to diff areas. Replace nonmodern populations all who eveolved outisde Africa simply died out, possible interbreeding or the idea of cladygenisis- branching evolution all species stil exist. This idea proposes that modern humans are the result of a speciation event in the late Pleistocene in Africa. Belief that Homo sapiens sapiens is a relatively young species that arose from a population of archaic humans in Africa 150- 200 kya. Multiple Dispersal (Templeton)- Repeated impact of African migrations interbreeding between modern people and species from other areas, this is from a genetic prospective gene flow between different populations. Out of Africa again and again, African populations play an important role in human evolution .
Taung Child: R. Dart, 1924. Human ancestors, small brain, but bipedal. Placement of foramen magnum follows the bipedal first hypothesis. Dart was right, ancestors brain was 400- 500 cm.
Fossil Evidence: Omo, Ethiopi- 195 kya Homo sapiens sapiens- external chin, flat face,, rounded occipital area, early modern Africa. Herto, Ethiopia- 160 kya Homo sapiens idaltu African modern human exception large brow ridges. Skuhl and Qafzeh, Isreal- 100 kya Homo sapiens sapiens. Homo sapiens sapiens elsewhere- 1. Europe- 40 kya 2. Asia- 70 kya 3. Austrailia- 60 kya 4. Americas- 15 kya. Oldest fossils in Africa
Hunted Foods: Males, come from things that run away, and thus must be caught or trapped. similar to some extracted foods, they also need to be processed before cosumption. Vertebrae prey are the prime example of hunted foods for chimps and humans. shared with F friends and offspring close male allies and hierarchies. Boom and bust system.
Evidence for controlled fire: never know if they actually made fire, but they were able to control it to cook and ward off predators. Evidence 1. baked earth 2. charred animal bones. There is a signature of camp fires v. spontaneous fires Evidence: bowl shaped oxidized soil and soil is magnetized. when bone burns it changes color and structure.
Basal Hominins: Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 7-6 mya. oldest fossil hominin group found in C. Africa- Chad. brain size- 350 cm3, supraorbital ridge. Why hominin- small canine doesnt project, face moderately projects. Orrorin tugenensis, 6mya. E. Africa- spread over large geographis space, Femur has a long neck, groove exturnal obturaor groove. Ardipithecus ramidus 5.8- 4.4 mya, Found in Ethiopia forward placed foramen magnum, but never published a pic. of the skull.
Single Species Hypothesis: belief that only one culture could live at a time we do not believe that now.
Traits defining early Homo: Compared to australopithecines. Increase in brain size- 500-775 cm3, front of brain is enlarging- less postorbital contriction, more rounded skulls, no crest, less prognathism- face sticks out less, more gracile mandible- smaller, smaller premolars and molars, Homo habilis maker of stone tools
Brain first: Belief that a large brain was the first evolved trait so scientists only looked for that trait.
Collected foods: wild plants and animals that are simply collected from the enviroment and eaten. Insects, fruits and leaves- may have used tools to acquire like chimps.
Homo rudolfensis: Date 2.4- 1.6 mya Geo Dist.: East and South Africa Important sites and paleoanthropologists: Bernanrd Ngeneo a member of Richard Leakey's team, found a complete skull on the eastern shore of lake turkana at koobi fora. Found at Omo in E. Africa, and at Uraha in S. Africa. found little postcranial material. Characteristics: Brain size- 752 cm3, large flat face, well into the size of modern humans megadontia teeth, sagittal crest, no brow ridge, large body size. Behavior: lived in habitats including lakesides, savannas, woodlands, and semiforested areas, did not use aboreal enviroment much, given the structure of the pelvic girdle and lower limbs. Diet: increased metabolic cost so they needed calorie content usually found with meat eating. however only made up small part of diet, they foraged, engaged in some hunting, and used tools to enhance thei ability to process animal and plant foods.

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