Biology 9 Spring Final
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- Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
- observe and describe microscopic organisms as living cells.
- Robert Hooke
- coined the term cells to describe the boxlike structures
- Matthias Schleiden
- plants are “aggregates of fully, independent, separate beings, namely the cells themselves.
- Theodor Schwann
- animals are also made of cells and proposed a cellular basis of life
- Rudolf Virchow
- the animal arises only from an animal and the plant only from a plant.⬝
- Janet Plowe
- cell membrane is a physical structure, not an interface between two liquids
- Lynn Margulis
- certain organelles, tiny structures within some cells, were once free-living cells themselves.
- What is the cell theory?
- 1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic organizational unit of life. 3. All cells arise from preexisting cells.
- Which Scientists contributed to the cell theory?
- Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow
- Why is the cell theory important?
- emphasizes the similarity of all living systems
- what are the three main parts of a cell?
- cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm
- What are the two divisions of cells?
- Cells are prokaryotes or eukaryotes
- Define Eukaryotes
- Eukaryotes (animal and plant cells) contain a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, multicellular
- Define Prokaryotes
- Prokaryotes (bacteria) lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, unicellular and multicellular
- What structures are not in animal cells?
- chloroplasts, central vacuole, tonoplast, cell wall, plasmodesmata
- What structures are not in plant cells?
- lysosomes, centrioles, flagella (in some plant sperm)
- Cell wall
- Contains cellulose fibers; provides support and protection to plant cells.
- Cell membrane (plasma membrane)
- Defines cell boundary; regulates molecule passage into and out of the cell.
- Nucleus
- The control center of the cell; stores genetic information; site of DNA and RNA synthesis.
- Nucleolus
- Concentrated area of chromatin, RNA, and proteins; site where ribosomes form
- Nuclear Envelope
- double layered membrance around the nuecleus that Allows passage of ribosomes out of nucleus and into the cytoplasm
- Ribosome
- Protein and RNA in 2 subunits; plays major role in protein synthesis.
- Cytosol
- Jellylike mixture consisting of mostly water, with proteins and carbohydrates. Site of many biological reactions
- Cytoplasm
- Everything between the cell membrane and nucleus; consist of 2 main parts: cytosol & organelles.
- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
- Membranous flattened channels and tubular canals; synthesis of proteins and other substances; gives rise to vesicles.
- Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
- Endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes; protein synthesis.
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
- Endoplasmic reticulum with no ribosomes; lipid synthesis.
- Golgi apparatus
- Stack of membranous sacks; processing, packaging, and distribution of proteins and lipids.
- Vacuole
- Membranous sac; storage area for liquid substances
- Vesicle
- Membranous sac; storage area for solid substances
- Lysosome
- Membranous vesicle containing digestive enzymes; site of intracellular digestion
- Mitochondrion
- Membranous organelle bounded by an outer membrane; site of aerobic cellular respiration. Makes ATP- adenosine triphosphate
- Chloroplast
- Membranous organelle bounded by an outer membrane; site of photosynthesis.
- Cytoskeleton
- Microtubules, intermediate filaments, actin filaments; shape of cell and movement of its parts
- Cilia and Flagella
- 9 + 2 pattern of microtubules. Moves the cell
- The cell membrane is made of
- Phospholipids=1 glycerol+2 fatty acids+1 PO4) Phosphate Head (Hydrophilic or “Water lovingâ€); water-soluble Lipid Tail (Hydrophobic or “Water hatingâ€); water-insoluble Phospholipid bilayer
- What is the Fluid Mosaic Model?
- Proteins in and on the membrane form patterns or mosaics on the membrane. Lipids in and on the membrane are fluid and have the consistency of vegetable oil.
- How is the nucleolus identified?
- Is the darkest region in the nuecleus. It disappears whren the cell is about to divide
- The nuecleus holds what?
- DNA material
- The cytoplasm is
- Everything but cell membrane and nucleus.
- The cytoplasm is made of
- Cytoplasm: cytosol and organelles.
- Define Organelles
- Structures that work like miniature organs carrying out specific cell functions.
- What are the 3 structures that prokaryotes and eukaryotes share?
- cell membrance, ribosomes, and cell wall
- Which molecules can enter the cell freely?
- small ones
- Which molecules can not enter the cell freely?
- large ones and ions
- Diffusion and facilitated diffusion
- passive, towards lower concentration, needs concentration gradient. Facilitated needs carrier protiens
- active transport
- active, towards higher concentration, needs carrier proteins and energy
- exocytosis
- active towards the outside, vesicle fuses with the membrane
- phagocytosis and pinocytosis
- active, towards the inside, vacoule/ vesicle formation
- osmosis
- diffusion of water
- isotonic solution
- cell neither gains nor loses water
- hypotonic solution
- cell gians water and may burst
- hypertonic solution
- cell loses water and may shrink
- microtublues join together to form what?
- flagella or cillia
- microtublues serve as
- track for organelles to move in a cell
- microfilaments
- muscle movement
- why are cells small?
- more surface area for a given volume of cytoplasm because The cells nucleus can only control a certain amount of living active cytoplasm
- what are the four levels of organazation
- cells, tissue, organs, organ systems
- chromatin
- dna bound to proteins, are spread throughout the nuecleus, condenses to form chromosomes
- cell specialization
- separate roles for each type of cell
- selective permeability
- some substances can pass and others can not
- mutations
- unexpected change to the genetic material
- Hugo de Vries
- the first scientist to refer to abrupt changes in genetic material as mutations–mutants
- Thomas Hunt Morgan
- discovered that chromosomes were probably made up of many smaller sections called genes– gene theory of inheritance
- somatic mutation
- mutations in the body cells, passed on to its daughter cells, not passed to offspring
- germ cell mutation
- mutations in the sperm or egg cells and they are passed on to the zygote
- mutations are caaused by
- mutagens
- mutagesn include
- chemicals, radiation, and temperature
- Walter Sutton
- Discovered theory of inheritance
- Genes
- The basic unit of heredity
- Johann Miescher
- Discovered DNA in 1869
- Frederick Griffith
- In 1928, performed a very important experiment trying to isolate the “transforming factor†that changed nondeadly bacteria into deadly bacteria.
- Oswald T. Avery
- In 1944, Oswald T. Avery and a team of scientists at Rockefeller University decided to repeat Griffith’s experiment in an attempt to discover the identity of the “transforming factor.†• Conclusion: DNA was the factor that transformed the bacteria into disease-producing bacteria.
- Linus Pauling
- helical structures – structures that resemble a circular staircase.
- Erwin Chargaff
- complementary base pairing
- Rosalind Franklin
- X-ray diffraction photographs
- James Watson and Francis Crick
- In 1953, constructed a model of DNA that showed its structure.
- nucleotides
- Small units that make up DNA
- C,G,T,A
- The 4 bases in DNA
- DNA replication
- The process of DNA making exact copies of itself
- DNA Polymerase
- enzyme that “proofreads†new DNA strands, helping to ensure that each molecule is a nearly perfect copy of the original DNA.
- Helicase
- enzyme that participates in DNA replication by unwinding the double helix near the replication fork.
- Ligase
- enzyme that links together the 3’ end of one nucleic acid strand with the 5’ end of another forming a continuous strand.
- protein synthesis
- Protein building. It directs the formation of protein molecules by 2 processes: transcription & translation.
- Transciption
- Process by which the DNA message is copied onto a strand of mRNA.
- Translation
- Process of building the protein from the mRNA instructions.
- DNA
- deoxyribonucleic acid.
- sex chromosomes
- chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual
- Autosomes
- All chromosomes othere than sex chromosomes
- Chromosome maps
- can be constructed to show the relative position of genes on a chromosome.
- Nicleotide is composed of?
- a sugar molecule, a phosphate molecule, and a nitrogen base
- Double Helix
- The structure of DNA
- Single Helix
- The structure of RNA
- termination codon
- Ends Protein synthesis
- DNA contains __, but not __
- Phosphorus, Sulfer
- Proteins contain __, but not __
- Sulfer, Phosphorus
- inheritance
- Receiving traits from parents
- Gregor Johann Mendel
- An Austrian monk. Was the first researcher to describe the inheritance of traits.
- Genetics
- The study of heredity
- probability
- The mathamatics of chance
- pure lines
- refer to a plant and its offspring that show a particular trait generation after generation.
- A hybrid is produced when⬦
- When two different pure lines are crossed
- Mendel concluded that
- some traits were stronger or more assertive than others.
- Mendel’s Law of Dominance
- states that when a (pure) dominant and a (pure) recessive trait are present,the dominant trait will show the hybrid organisms.
- Mendel's Law of Incomplete Dominance
- states that there are times when neither trait in a contrasting pair is dominant over the other.
- Mendel’s Law of Segregation
- states that each individual carries two factors for each trait.
- Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment
- states that factors for different traits are inherited independently.
- Heredity
- passing of traits from one generation to the next generation
- geneticist
- a scientist who studies genetics.
- Mendel’s factors are now called what?
- genes
- allele
- One half of a gene pair
- What do geneticists use to represent allels?
- letters
- Homozygous
- an organism that has inherited two identical alleles and is pure for that trait.
- Heterozygous
- organism that has two different alleles for a trait.
- Genotype
- the actual genetic makeup of an individual organism.
- Phenotype
- describes the outward expression of the genotype.
- Punnett squares
- diagrams geneticists use to show the possible genotypes of a particular genetic cross.
- dihybrid cross
- shows a 9:3:3:1 ratio
- Morgan reasoned that genes
- determine specific traits, and that many genes are located on a single chromosome.
- chromosomal mutations
- cause changes to the cell and organism
- gene mutations
- Cause changes in individual genes and involve changes in DNA code. Ultimately changes the order of bases in a DNA strand causing the changed gene to code for a different protein.
- Chromosomal Mutations occur during
- cell division
- Nondisjuction
- Occurs when homologous pairs of chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis
- Trisonomy
- extra chromosome in cell
- Monosomy
- missing a chromosome
- Down Syndrome
- trisonomy 21
- Klinefelter
- XXY
- Turner
- XO
- Polyploidy
- both gameteshave 2N chromosomes, lethal in animals, not in plants
- Deletion
- Occurs when a piece of DNA breaks off and does not rejoin the chromosome
- Translocation
- Occurs when a fragment from one chromosome attaches to another chromosome.
- Inversion
- A section of a chromosome detaches and rejoins, but in an upside-down position
- Duplication
- Arise as the result of unequal crossing over between synapsed chromosomes during meiosis. A chromosomal aberration in which a segment of the chromosome is repeated
- Insertion
- a piece of a chromosome breaks off and is added to antoher chromosome
- Albinism
- gene mutation in which melanin is not produced
- point mutation
- involves one base in the DNA- RNA codes for wrong protein
- Frameshift Mutation
- a base in the DNA is added or taken out, affects every codon afterwards
- what provides some of the variation that is important to the process of evolution
- mutations
- evolution
- accumulation of genetic variations that help organisms survive and adapt to changes in their enviorment
- defins the role of restriction enzymes
- surrounds the DNA molecule at the point it seeks. It cuts the DNA in the complementary spots (same bases in between) the edges have sticky edges
- restriction site
- point where the sequence of DNA is cut
- ligase (biotechnology)
- join the pieces of DNA together
- gene splicing
- process of adding DNA from one organism to another
- plasmids
- are similar to viruses, but lack a protein coat and cannot move from cell to cell in the same fashion as a virus.
- cloning
- asexual production that makes identical copies of DNA
- Gel electrophoresis
- uses aragose gel and a electirc current. Dna is placed in the gel, and the current is in the gel. Based on rate of migration, DNA size can be calculated (small = faster)
- from what are scientists able to sequence the bases in a DNA molecule
- gel electophoresis
- PCR
- polymerase chain raction- increases the amount of DNA and diagnoses human genetic disroders
- DNA Fingerprinting
- It is a process that involves using DNA to identify a person; it is often used to compare a sample of DNA found in tissues collected at a crime scene with the DNA of a suspect.
- Biotechnology
- applied biological science. The use of genetic material in living organisms to help make useful products or solve medical problems
- how has the use of biotechnology affected our lives?
- affected the ways we diagnose and even prevent human diseases, many practices in agriculture, forensic science
- denatured
- the dna starnds are heated and complementary base pairs break apart and the double helix dissociates into two single strands
- renaturation
- DNA is left at 149 degrees F and the two strands come back together
- DNA hybridization
- if RNA is intorduced to the denatured DNA, RNA competes with the coding DNA and can form a double heliz with DNA and RNA
- hybridization reactions can be used to
- detect and characterize nucleotide sequences using a particular nucleotide sequence as a probe.
- recombanint DNA
- are actually moved from one DNA molecule and inserted into another
- Plasmid vectors
- are small circular molecules of double stranded DNA derived from natural plasmids that occur in bacterial cells. A piece of DNA can be inserted into a plasmid if both the circular plasmid and the source of DNA have recognition sites for the same
- after DNA is cut, what happens with the exposed ends
- they become sticky and they are also complementary
- DNA cloning
- The new plasmid can be introduced into bacterial cells that can produce many copies of the inserted DNA
- through the use of restriction enzymes
- Scientists are able to combine two different DNA fragments through the use of restriction enzymes.
- restriction enzymes
- scientists cut a strand of DNA at a particular point in the sequence of bases
- Morals and Biotechnology
- Many people of concerned that certain application of biotechnology will lead to possible abuses of individual rights. Decision about the used of biotechnology often involve value judgments that will have to be decided by society. While the uses and consequences of biotechnology are debated, many benefits to society have already been achieved using the techniques and new discoveries are being made daily.
- a new plasmid contains what
- foreign DNA
- when a mismatches occur in recombanint DNA⬦
- they produce an undesireable result