Bio 112 Study Guide 4

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Phyla are also called what?: Divisions
What is the purpose of a dispersal mechanism in regards to plants?: To get the embryo away from the plant to prevent inbreeding
Plants evolved from which group of protists?: Chlorophyta
List three homologies giving evidence for plants' evolution from chlorophyta.: 1. Both have cellulose cell walls
2. Both have cell plates formed by fused vesicles during cell division
3. Both have chlorophyll A and B
What is chlorophyta?: Green algae
What are three main issues facing plants considering movement from an aqueous environment to a terrestrial environment?: 1. Gravity
2. Desiccation
3. Nutrient transport
What are bryophytes?: Small primitive plants
What environment do bryophytes require and why?: Near to water since their sperm are motile biflagellate
How do bryophytes deal with the gravity issue?: Their support is in the form of rhizoids
What are rhizoids?: Elongated "root-like" anchor cells
How do bryophytes deal with the desiccation issue?: Waxy lipid cuticle secreted by epidermal cells
How do bryophytes deal with the nutrient transport issue?: Capillarity
What is capillarity?: The action of liquid due to cohesive properties drawing fluid up through a surface structure
Why are bryophytes rare in cities?: They are sensitive to pollutants
What are two common characteristics of bryophytes?: They are cosmopolitan and are known as pioneer plants
What are the three groups of bryophytes?: Hepaticophyta (liverworts), anthocerophyta (hornworts), and bryophyta (mosses)
What are anthophyta?: Flowering plants
What can be said of the growth rate of bryophytes?: It is at a slow rate
What is the exception of the bryophytes' characteristic growth rate?: Sphagnum moss (peat moss)
What is the dominant stage of a bryophyte lifecycle?: Gametophyte
With what is the gametophyte typically associated?: Mycorrhizae
What is an archegonium?: It develops at the tips of female gametophytes and is the structure that produces one egg
What is an antheridium?: It develops on the tops of male gametophytes and produces many sperm
What can be said of the sporophyte stage of bryophytes?: Short-lived, photosynthetic, and is attached to the gametophyte
List two facts about bryophyta.: They have a diverse morphology
There's about 12,000 species
List four different types of bryophyta.: Pymgy- a 1-2 mm tall moss
Schistostega- a bioluminescent cave moss
Splachnum- an animal dung moss w/sticky spores
Sphagnum- peat moss
List three interesting characteristics of sphagnum.: It absorbs 20 times its weight in water
Its acid secretions kill decomposers (thus its good for bandages and preserving bodies such as the tanned/hanged bodies found)
Its bogs can be as old as 50,000 yrs and half the size of the US
List three facts about hepaticophyta.: They're liver-shaped
There's about 8500 species
They're 0.5mm- 20cm tall
What are the two types of hepaticophyta?: Leafy and thallus
What are the two types of dispersal methods for hepaticophyta?: Gemmae cups (splash cups) and elators
Which dispersal method contains a gametophyte that is launched away from the parent with rain drops?: Gemmae cups
Which dispersal method contains hydroscopic structures that twist when dry, acting as a catapult for spores when moisture is present?: Elators
List two facts about anthocerophyta.: There are about 100 species.
They have a horn-shaped sporophyte.
List two facts about anthocerophyta's cells.: One chloroplast is associated with a pyrenoid.
They have mucilage-containing cavities.
What is the use for the slimy cavities?: Protection
Lubrication
Water/nutrient absorption
Why would a pyrenoid be associated with one chloroplast?: It indicates a variable environment
What are pteridophytes?: Any seedless vascular plant
In what environment are pteridophytes found?: Near to water since their sperm are motile
How do pteridophytes deal with the gravity issue?: They have lignin in cell walls
They have vascular tissue
How do pteridophytes deal with the desiccation issue?: Waxy cuticle
How do pteridophytes deal with the nutrient transport issue?: Tracheary elements transporting water (dead tissue forming xylem), and sieve elements transporting nutrients (living tissue forming phloem)
What are Psilophyta?: Whisk ferns
List two facts about psilophyta.: They do not have roots (instead have rhizomes).
They have dichotomous (Y-like) branching.
What four phyla are included in pteridophytes?: Psilophyta (whisk ferns), Sphenophyta (horsetails), and Lycophyta (club moss), and Pterophyta (ferns)
What are rhizomes?: Root-like modified stems used as horizontal underground stems (ie tubers with accumulation at the rhizome tip such as potatoes)
What is Lycophyta?: Club moss (though not a true moss)
List three facts about Lycophyta.: There are about 1,100 species.
The sporophyte is reliant on the gametophyte for nutrients.
They have suspensor cells.
What are suspensor cells?: Cells that push the embryo (sporophyte) into gametophyte tissue.
List two types of Lycophyta.: Selaginella- "Resurrection plant"
Lycopodium- Considered by the Druids to bring good fortune
What are Sphenophyta?: Horsetails
List three facts about Sphenophyta.: There are 15 species of one extant genus being Equisetum.
They have whorled leaves.
They are known as "scouring rushes" and were used as brooms.
What are Pterophyta?: Ferns
List two facts about Pterophyta.: There are about 12,000 species.
The species are determined by sori.
What are sori?: Groups of sporangia found on the underside of fern fronds.
What are fronds?: Fern leaves that consist of pinnae and pinnules.
What is a circinate growth pattern?: It is a fern's circular unfolding of "fiddleheads"
Give an example of a tree fern.: Marattita has 9 x 4.5 m fronds
What are the two clades of vascular seed plants?: Gymnosperms (Permian Period- 280mya) and angiosperms (Jurassic Period- 180 mya)
How do vascular seed plants deal with the gravity and nutrient transport issues?: Vascular tissue modifications
How do vascular seed plants deal with the desiccation issue?: Waxy cuticle for the leaves and stem, and seeds that protect the sporophyte from desication
What does "gymnosperm" mean?: Literally "naked seeds", it means the ovules are not enclosed in tissue during fertilization
What can be said about the cones?: They come in male and female versions
What can be said about the sperm of gymnosperms?: They may be motile (primitive) or non-motile
What means of reproduction do gymnosperms utilize?: Since there is no means for asexual reproduction, it is only sexual
What are the four phyla of extant gymnosperms?: Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkgophyta (ginkgo), Gnetophyta (gnetum, welwitschia, and ephedra), and Coniferophyta (pines, firs, spruce, cedar)
What are Cycadophyta?: Cycads
List two facts about Cycadophyta.: They have motile sperm.
They are palm-like.
What are Ginkgophyta?: Ginkgo
List four facts about Ginkgophyta.: There is one species.
It has motile sperm.
It has fan-shaped leaves.
It has berry-like cones.
What are Gnetophyta?: A diverse group consisting of three genera: Welwitschia (giant strap-like plant), Ephedra ("Mormon tea"), and Gnetum (grows in the tropics as trees or vines)
List a fact about Gnetophyta.: They have non-motile sperm.
What are Coniferophyta?: Pines, Firs, Spruce, and Cedar
List a fact about Coniferophyta.: They have non-motile sperm.
What are the four main characteristics of anthophyta?: Their ovules are enclosed in tissue during fertilization
They use double-fertilization
They have flowers
They have fruit
What is double-fertilization?: Fertilization resulting in embryo and endosperm formation
What is a flower?: A structure that attracts pollinators
What is a fruit?: A structure that attracts dispersers
What are the three parts of a seed?: A cotyledon, the embryo, and the endosperm
What are four functions of the cotyledon? List two examples.: Source of starch
Source of oils (ie peanuts)
Source of flammable oils
Source of waxy oils
Cacahvanache tree
Licania
What is a structural goal of plants? How do they meet it?: To generate their own carbohydrates; Chloroplasts
What are chloroplasts?: Organelles that absorb radiant energy and transduce it into chemical energy to produce carbohydrates
What are the three components of a plant's support system?: Primary cell walls- cellulose (ie celery strings)
Secondary cell walls- lignin (for tall plants)
Vacuoles
What are two functions of vacuoles?: Substance storage
To provide internal turgor pressure by filling with water
What is parenchyma?: Unspecialized cells able to differentiate into other cell types (kinda like stem cells for plants)
Where is parenchyma found?: Everywhere in the plant as they are very generalized
Which cell wall layer is composed of parenchyma?: Primary cell walls only
What is the function of parenchyma?: Performs metabolic functions
List three characteristics of parenchyma.: Thin and flexible
Made of cellulose
Remains as living tissue at maturity
What is collenchyma? List a characteristic and where it is found.: An uneven layer in the primary cell wall
It remains alive at maturity
What is the function of collenchyma?: To provide support for growing cells
What is sclerenchyma?: Thick, rigid, tough cells strengthened by lignin
In which cell wall layers are sclerenchyma found?: In the primary and secondary cell walls
List three characteristics of sclerenchyma.: It is dead at maturity
It is made up of fiber cells
It makes up sclereids (in nutshells and seed coats)
What are tracheids?: Water-conducting cells that make up a single 2-celled cell wall with pits
List three characteristics of tracheids.: They are made of long, tapering tube-like cells
They are primitive
They are dead at maturity
What did plant vessels evolve from?: Tracheids
What is the function of xylem?: To conduct water
List three characteristics of cell walls.: They have perforated end walls
They are composed of short, non-tapered, wide cells
They are dead at maturity
What is the function of phloem?: To transport dissolved nutritious substances (carbohydrates, aminos, hormones, minerals)
List three characteristics of phloem.: It is associated with sclerenchyma
It is alive at maturity
It is a sieve tube member and associated with companion cells
What is dermal tissue derived from?: Protoderm (which is derived from parenchyma)
List three characteristics of dermal tissue.: It is a single layer
It is tightly packed
It includes root hairs (increasing absorption surface)
List three functions of dermal tissue.: It supports
It protects
It secretes the cuticle
What is vascular tissue derived from?: Procambium (which is derived from parenchyma)
List three structures formed from vascular tissue.: Tracheids, xylem, phloem
List two functions of vascular tissue.: Support
Transport of substances
What is ground tissue derived from?: Ground meristem (which is derived from parenchyma)
List two characteristics of ground tissue.: It forms the bulk of the plant
It is located between dermal and vascular tissues
List three functions of ground tissue.: Photosynthesis
Storage
Support
Which structures make up the shoot system?: Leaves, stems, and derivitives (ie modified stems/leaves)
List the three paths parenchyma may develop.: Parenchyma>Protoderm>Dermal system
Parenchyma>Procambium>Vascular tissue: trachoid, xylem, phloem
Parenchyma>Ground meristem>Ground tissue
What is the shoot system developed from?: Primary meristems (growth centers) such as protoderm, procambium, and ground meristem
What is the difference in shoot structure dependent upon?: Differential growth patterns
What are stolons?: Modified stems used as horizontal ground runners (ie strawberries)
What are bulbs?: Modified stems used as large buds w/stem at one end and surrounded by fleshy leaves (ie onions)
What are corms?: Bulb-like modified stems (ie water chestnuts)
What are cladophylls?: Flat leaf-like modified stems (ie asparagus "leaves")
What are cacti?: Modified stems used as large fleshy storages
What are spines?: Pointed modified stems used for protection
What are tendrils?: Modified stems used for climbing (ie peas, ivy, grapes, and the Baobab "prison tree")
What are four functions of modified roots?: Food storage (beets, carrots, yams, potatoes)
Water storage (manroots up to 66 lbs, prairie lilies)
Propagation (adventitious roots in fruit trees ie Aspen)
Oxygen acquiring (pneumatophores in cypress like stilts above swampy ground)
What are predatory leaves?: Modified leaves used for predation (ie Venus fly traps)
What is a monoecious flower?: Both sexes in one flower
What is a dioecious flower?: Sexes separate (one flower will be male and another will be female)
What is self-pollination?: The plant is capable of pollinating itself
What is cross-pollination?: The process a plant uses to outcross (breed) with other individuals
What is a vector in regards to plants?: A carrier of pollen such as water, wind, animals, insects, etc
List six characteristics a plant will have if wind is its vector.: Lightweight/sticky pollen
Lots of pollen
No petals/sepals/smells of the flower
Well-exposed stamen
Large stigmas
Inflorescence
What is the vector of grass?: Wind
List a characteristic a plant will have if water is its vector.: Pollen boats
What is the vector of ribbon weed?: Water
What are three characteristics a plant will have if bees are its vector?: They will have nectar guides (like airplant runway lights)
They will smell sweet
They will be shades of blues/yellows
What are social bees versus solitary bees?: A social bee is attracted to multiple flower species whereas a solitary bee sticks to one species of flower
List two characteristics a plant will have if butterflies are its vector.: They will have nectar guides
They will be variable to sweet-smelling
List three characteristics a plant will have if moths are its vector.: They will be sweet-smelling
They will be pale (since moths are nocturnal)
They will have large flowers w/o nectar guides
List two characteristics a plant will have if beetles are its vector.: Dull colors of the flower w/o nectar guides
Fruity-smelling
List two characteristics a plant will have if carrion/dung beetles are its vector.: Purple, brown, or green colors w/o nectar guides
Foul odors
List three characteristics a plant will have if bats are its vector.: Strong fruity-smelling
Large, sturdy flowers
White flowers (supports nocturnal behavior)
List two characteristics a plant will have if birds are its vector.: Odorless flowers
Shades of reds/yellows
What is the function of dispersal mechanisms?: To disperse the embryo away from parent plant (ie water carries away coconut, wind takes away helicopters, etc)
What are the 9 steps in an anthophyta lifecycle?: 1. The anthers of the flower produce
2. Microspores that form
3. Male gametophytes (pollen)
4. The ovules produce megaspores that form
5. Female gametophytes (embryo sacs)
6. Pollination brings the gametophytes together in the ovary
7. Double-fertilization occurs, and
8. Zygotes develop into sporophyte embryos that are packaged along with food into seeds (and fruit)
9. The seed germinates and the embryo grows and develops into a sporophyte
What are the classes of anthophyta?: Monocots:One cotyledon, parallel venation, complexly arranged vascular bundles, fibrous root system, floral parts in multiples of threes
Dicots: Two cotyledons, netlike venation, ring arranged vascular bundles, taproot system, floral parts in multiples of four or five
List five general features of the animalia kingdom.: They are eukaryotic
Multicellular
Heterotrophic
They have a mobile stage in their lifecycle
They have cells>tissues>organs>organ systems
What are the two sub-kingdoms of the subkingdom metazoa of the kingdom animalia?: Parazoa ("near animals") 1 phyla: porifera
Eumetazoa ("true changed animals") 32 phyla
What are porifera?: "Pore bearers" sponges
List four characteristics of porifera.: Aquatic
Variable size
No tissue or organs
Mobile larvae/ sessile adults
What are the three cell types of porifera and what they do?: Choanocytes- Propel nutrients through body
Amoebocytes- Move between cell types
Epithelial cells- Protect organism and react to stimuli
What are the four structures of porifera and what they do?: Pores- Allow water in (through incurrent pore) and out (through osculum)
Mesenchyme- Protein gel that houses amboebocytes
Spongin- Tough protein secretion
Spicules- Calcium carbonate or silica
How is waste expelled from porifera?: Propelled out of the osculum
How are nutrients acquired by porifera?: 1. Chaonocytes generate suction with flagella
2. A food vacuole is formed via endocytosis
3. Vacuole fuses with digestive vacuole
What mode of reproduction does porifera utilize?: Asexual and sexual
What are the asexual processes of porifera?: Fragmentation- Pieces of organism are broken off and form new individuals
Regeneration- Replication of a body part
What is the sexual process of porifera?: After fertilization, mobile larvae leaves adult
Choanocytes provide propulsion
The medusae inverts and remain sessile
Which subkingdom does cnidaria belong to?: Eumetazoa
What are the two forms of cnidaria?: Polyp- the sessile form (ie coral, sea anemone)
Medusa- the free-living form (ie hydra, jellyfish)
How is waste expelled from cnidaria?: It is expelled from the coelenteron
What is a coelenteron?: A single opening to the gut cavity
What is extracellular digestion?: Food particles are digested by enzymes outside of cells
What is a cnidocyte?: A nematocyst harpoon projected via osmotic pressure used to paralyze prey with its toxins
How do cnidaria acquire their nutrition?: Extracellular digesting
Describe the cnidaria's nervous system.: They have nerve nets which coordinate contractions of cell layers
Describe the cnidaria's reproductive cycle.: After fertilization, planula larvae are formed
What are the three classes of cnidaria?: Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa, and Anthozoa
List three characteristics of hydrozoa and an example.: Marine
Colonial
Has medusa and polyp forms
Ie, hydra
List three characteristics of scyphozoa and an example.: Marine
Medusa form is dominant
Epithelial cells individually contract
Ie, jellyfish
List two characteristics of anthozoa and an example.: Marine
Many are symbiotic with algae
Ie, sea anemone and coral
What are ctenophora?: Comb jellies
Why are ctenophora considered more evolved than cnidaria?: They have a one way digestive tract, which allows for specialization
In which habitats are cnidaria found?: They are aquatic (freshwater) and marine (salt water)
What kind of symmetry do cnidarians have?: They have radial symmetry (able to be cut into equal pie pieces)
What type of tissue do cnidarians consist of?: They have 2 types of tissue: ectoderm and endoderm
What are the forms cnidarians take?: They have mobile and sessile forms
What hunting tool do cnidarians have?: They have cnidocytes containing nematocysts (stinging cells)
What hunting tool do cnidarians have?: They have cnidocytes containing nematocysts (stinging cells)
Phyla are also called what?: Divisions

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