psych chp 7
Terms
undefined, object
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- cognitive revolution
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introsepction
1) 19th centruy focus on mind
2) behaviorist focus on overt responses
3) emirpical study of cognition -
simon and nevell
chomsky
miller -
1) simon and nevell - prblm solving
2) chomsky - lang development
3) miller - memory - cognition
- mental progress involved in attaining/ understanding info
- cognitive psychology
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the study of the mental processes by which the infor from the environment is
1)modified
2)made meaningful
3)encoded
4)communicate w/ others - thought
- the representation and processing of info in the mind
- reasoning
- the process by which people generate and evaluate arguments and beliefs
- inductive reasoning
- from specific observations to general propositions / relies on probablity
- deductive reasoning
- drawing a conclusion from a set of assumptions / begins w/gereral and ends w/ specific / basic laws applies in all cases
- syllogism
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consists of two premises that lead to a logical conclusion
ex: All terriers are dogs. All terriers are mammals. Therefore, All mammals are dogs. - analogical reasoning
- process by which ppl understand a novel situation in terms of a familiar one / situations must contain certain similarities / need not literally resemeble each other / elements must explain how situations are related
- errors in logical reasoning
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all gun owners are ppl
all criminals are ppl
all ppl are criminals - why we make errors - 1)confirmation bias / 2)limits
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1) tendency to seek only info that confirms our beliefs / ignore info that discomfirms our beliefs
ex: doc that had mentally ill patient who died
2) we may not be able to hold all premises in short term memory at the same time - problem solving
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process of transforming one situation into another to acheive a goal
ex: getting a date, exams, crossword puzzle, graduating - characterisitcs common to all problems - 4
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1) initial state - a description of the unsolved problem
2) set of operations/actions - mechanism to get from inital to goal
3) goal - description of what consitutes a solution
4) not obvious - the solution is not immediately obvious - it is a problem b/c it requires you to think - well defined problems ex: crossword
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1) initial state - empty puzzle
2) actions - clues, dictionary, friends
3) finishing boxes
4) solution was not immediatly obvious - ill-defined problem
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when the info needed to solve problem and when what the goal is are vague
ex: solving educational system of GA
ex: making your parents proud - problem solving strageties - 2
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1) algorithms - systematic procedure that will produce a solution
advantages - guaranteed solution
disadvantages - time consuming (lock combo)/not all problems have obvious algorithm( apt hunting)
2)mental simulation -imagining steps involved in solving a problem before actually undertaking them - obstacles to problem solving - 3
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1) fuctional fixedness - tendency to view an object as having only one purpose ex: candle match box
2) mental set - persistent use of problem solving strategies that worked in the past
3) confirmation bias - seek to confirm what we already believe - methods for becoming a better problem solver - 5
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1) restructuring
2) analogies
3) working backwards
4) incubation
5) set up sub-goals - restructuring
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changing the way you represent problems
ex: chunking - when asked to memorize a set of words - analogies - 4
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1) personal analogy - place yourself directly in situation
2) direct analogy - look for solutions from comparable fields
3) symbolic analogy - metaphors
4) fantasy analogy - based on things known not to be
ex: "we want a lil slave to dial the phone for us" - working backwards
- working backwards from goal / insight / rephrasing
- incubation - 3
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increased likelihood of solving a problem if you take breaks
1) occurs only after some mental effort
2) a burst of insight
3) results in more work but w/ a diff approach - decision making - 3
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process by which in individual wieghs pros and cons of diff alternatives to make a decision
1) generating, selecting and evaluating choices
2) where the rules for deciding are not obvious
3) choices involve some risk - uncertainity - heuristics - advantages and disadvantages
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cognitive shortcuts for selecting among alternaties w/out carefully considering each one
advantages: works under some circumstances / increase efficiency / simplify tasks
disadvantages - may lead to systematic bias / errors in judgement / not guaranteed correct answer - representatvie heuristic - 4
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matching the similarity of an obj to a prototype but ignore info about its probability of occuring ex: description read of jack sounds like engineer - participants asked to pick if he was lawyer or engineer out of 70% lawyers
1) used to judge membership in a class
2) judge similarity to stereotypes
3) people ignore pre-existing distribution of catagories of base fate frequency
4) gambler's fallacy - mistaken belief that the next chance event will be to ensure representatives ex:50/50coin toss - availability heuristic
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people infer the frequency of something based on how readily it comes to mind - events we can easily recall are typical
people are biased by info that is easy to recall - swayed by info that is vivid/well publizied ex: vaccines
biased by examples that they can easily retrieve
correlate events that occur close together - variables that affect availabitlity heuristic - 5
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1) ease of searching - whatever is easier to imagine will be brought forth ex: words starting w/ k or wordes w/ k in middle
2) general world knowledge - what is more common - earthquakes in SF or Memphis?
3) familiarity - objs that are more familiar will appear greater in # ex: famous woman names in list of normal guy names
4) vividness - objs that are vivid are more memorable and hence more available ex: advertisements "don't drink and drive" - car crash
5) personal relevance - info is given disproportionate amount in weight ex: jaguar vs. ferrari - if friend tells them info that jaguar is better - they will go for jag - implicit cognition
- cognition outside of awareness
- implicit learning
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ppl implicitly register regularities in their environment or learn to behave in particular was w/ lil or no explicit instructions
1) rules of gaze
2) where to look in an elevator - language
- system of symbols, sounds, meanings and rules for their combination that constitute primary mode of communication - our thoughts to others
- linguistic universals - 8
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features that are common to all known languages - to be considered a lang - it must have
1) interpersonal/communicative - two or more ppl communicate
2) symbolic - symbols of lang are arbitrary ex: hiss = sound
3) meaningful - words express a concept - same for everyone that speaks that lang
4) referential - particular symbols refer to something in the world
5) structured - implicit rules of sent structure
6) multiplicity of structure - words can have more than 1 meaning
7) creative/productive - use lang to produce an infinite # of phrases
8) dynamic - lang is constantly evolving - ex: email/internet - phonology
- study of how sounds are organized in lang
- phoneme
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smallest unit of sound that constitutes speech
ex: sKi and Cat - k and c represent same phoneme - phonological rules
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general statements about the relationship between sounds
ex: sounds that go together = sp, ac, by
sounds that don't = zw, bt, wv - morphemes
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smallest unit of meaning in lang / every word in eng lang is made up of 1 or more morphemes
ex: cat + "s" changes meaning - therefore "s" is a morpheme - morphology
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rules that combine morphemes / next level of analysis above phonemes
ex: noun + "ed" = no
verb + "ed" = yes - non-verbal communication - 7
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1) vocal intonation (tone of voice)
2) body lang ex: crossed arms
3) gestures
4) physical distance
5) facial expressions
6) touch
7) non-verbal vocalization ex: sighs/throat clearings - children aquire lang w/...
- astonishing speed. / 1 yr old- rattle nonsense / 4+yr - mastered basics / avg person knows 60,000 words
- Behaviorist Theory to lang aquisition
- B.F. skinner proposed that parents encourage utterances / they do not correct grammer / they correct facts and expand utterances
- Nativist Theory to lang aquisition
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1) incredible speed of aquiring grammar skills
2) grammar is learned first - LAD(lang aquisition device) - innate set of neural switches for aquiring lang (ex:sign lang)
3) lang aquisition pace is similar cross culuturally - univeral grammer - innate shared of linguisitic principles
4) similar development pattern in sign lang - ex: kids use grammar in sign lang even though they've never been taught - interactionist theory to lang aquisition
- biological predisoposition and supportive enviroment contribute to lang development
- interactionist theory - cognitive theory
- lang development is part of a more cognitive development, depending on maturation and experience
- interactionist theory - social communication theory
- interpersonal communication shapes lang - emphazises social context
- emergentist theory
- you are not born w/ prewired nueral circuits but rather they emerge as in repsonse to learning experiences - incremental changes in connection networks
- four stages to lang aquisition
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stages are not discrete - no definitive ending/starting pt.
1) prelinguisitic
2) one word utterance
3) two word utterance
4) three word utterance and beyond - mixture principle
- a child's speech will show several levels of complexity at any given time
- prelinguisitic stage - 2
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birth - 18mons
characteristics
1)crying - signals emtional state / causes parents to respond
2) cooing and vocal play - applies to deaf children too / interaction takes on socail quality - one word utterance stage - holophrastic speech
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12-18mons
holophrastic speech - using a single word to communicate the meaning of complete sent - Whorfian hypotheses
- language shapes thought
- two word utterance stage
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18-24mon
utterances composed of only the most essentials
ex: want up
drastic increase in vocab - three word utterance stage and beyond
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18-24mon
increase in use of syntax
sent longer and more complex
begin to aquire grammar
ex: use morphemes