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ratio vs. interval reinforcement schedule: ratio - based on number of responses
interval - based on time elapsed
fixed vs. variable reinforcement schedule: fixed - implies reinforcement always (takes place after fixed number or time)
variable - implies an average number or time frame is used
Premack principle: "an efficient reinforcer is what the client likes to do"
LPB - low probability behavior
HPB - high probability behavior
higer order conditioning: when a new stimulus is paired with CS and the new stimulus takes on the power of the CS
operant: B.F.Skinner.
a behavior which is not elicited by an obvious stimulus
(vs. respondant - consequence of a known stimulant)
Robert Carkhuff: creator of 5 point scale: empathy, genuineness, concreteness, respect
congruence: genuine, real, authentic
(characteristic of counselor)
biofeedback device: does not change client, but provides biological information.
used primarily to teach clients to relax or to control ANS function.
Robert Kegan: "holding environment" (in counseling)
client can make meaning in the face of a crisis and can find new direction
suggests 6 stages of life span development (incorporative, impulsive, imperial, interpersonal, institutional, and interindividual)
maturational view: (that of plant growth)
mind driven by instinct. the environment provided nourishment, placing limitations.
counselors allow clients to work through early conflicts
equilibration: Piaget.
balance between assimilation (taking in new information) and accommodation (modification of cognitive structure)
critical period: Konrad Lorenz.
makes imprinting possible.
signifies a special time when a behavior must be learned or it wont be learned at all
learned helplessness: Martin Seligman.
a pattern in which a person is exposed to situations that he is truly powerless to change.
believes he has no control
fixation: Freud.
when development comes to a halt... when frustration and anxiety are too great... the client remains in a stage where he feels safe
Daniel J. Levinson: 80% of men experience moderate-severe mid life crisis.
views the crisis as somewhat (+), pointing out that men who do not face it may stagnate
Eric Erikson. view of ego identity: ego strives to produce a unique autonomous self. it is not content with the mere assimulation of parental views
BASIC-ID: Arnold Lazarus
behaviorist approach. feels couneling is multimodal, relying on a variety of therapeutic techniques:
Behavior
Affective response
Sensations
Imagery
Cognitions
Interpersonal relationships
Drugs
symbolic schema: Piaget.
preoperational stage
a cognitive structure that grows with life experience
allows language and symbolism in play to occur
centration: Piaget.
preoperational stage
focusing on a key figure of a given object while not noticing the rest of it
Konrad Lorenz: ethnology - the study of animal behavior in their natural environment
*imprinting - instinct... infant instinctively follows the first moving object it encounters
illustrated the point of "critical periods"
empiricists: (-> behaviorism)
believe development consists of quantitative changes.
scientists can only learn from objective facts
experience is the source for acquiring knowledge
organismic theorists: qualitative (measure of internal changes) rather than quantitative
sensorimotor: Piaget
0-2 years
reflex
"practical intelligence"
object permanance (>8 months)
representational thought
concept of time (one event takes place before or after another)
causality
instinctual: behavior than manifests itself in all normal members of a given species (innate, unlearned behaviors)
duty to warn: Tarasoff
a client in immeinent danger to self or others (may contact anothr party to prevent the dangerous situation)
privileged communication: CLIENT chooses disclosure
anything said to a counselor by a client will not need to be divulged outside the counseling setting
*qualified - exceptions may exist
DMS-IV multi-axial classification: I-clinical syndromes, V codes
II-developmental / personality disorders
III-physical disorders / conditions
IV-severity of psychological stressors
V-GAF
V codes: the focus of treatment, but not attributable to a mental condition
(marital problems, malingering, etc... day to day problems, not psychological disorders)
CPT: current procedural terminology
includes the nature of the treatment; may include length of service time
mental health consultation: Caplan
"psychodynamic"
consultant does not see the client but advises the consultee
SCII: Strong Interest Inventory
measures interest, not ability
based on Holland's typology
untimed
forced choice format (like, indifferent, unlike)
Kuder Career Search: Interest Inventory
ASVAB DAT GATB: Armed Service Vocational Aptitude Battery
Differental Aptitude Test
General Aptitude Test Battery (used by state employment)
trait factor theory: Parson, Williamson, Patterson
assumed that via psychological testing one's personality could be matched to an occupation which stressed those particular traits
trait-factor approach: Parsons, Williamson, Patterson
attempts to match worker and work environment (job factors)
relies heavily on testing
*one time process
structural theory
differential psychology
Holland: believed personality must be congruent with the environment
6 personality types:
Realistic - machines
Investigative - research, think
Conventional - conform, structure, rules
Enterprising - leaders
Artistic -
Social - interpersonal skills
Donald Super: career development... longitudinal, reversible
emphasizes self-concept
5 life stages:
Growth
Exploration (15-24y)
Establishment (24-44y)
Maintenance (44-64y)
Decline (65+)
Anne Roe: career choice influenced by:
genetics
parent-child interaction (parenting styles)
unconscious motives
current needs
interests
education
intelligence
Maslow's hierarchy
Roe's parenting styles: overprotective
avoidant
acceptant
one develops a personality that gravitates (or not) to others
A.A.Brill: personality theory of career choice
*psychoanalytic
brings Freud's theory to career counseling - emphasizes sublimation (when one expresses an unacceptable need in a socially acceptable manner)
sublimation: when a person acts out an unconscious impulse in a socially acceptible manner
Tiedman O'Hara: decision making theory of career choice
*individual has the power to choose
(1) anticipation
(2) implimentation / adjustment
John Krumboltz: behavioristic model
social learning approach to career choice (bandura)
*modeling
*decision making is a skill that can be learned
Edwin Bordin: emphasized unconscious mind career choice could solve unconscious conflicts (similar to Roe)
*psychoanalytic

difficulties related to job choice are indicative of neurotic symptoms
Henry Murray: "needs-press" theory
*the occupation is used to meet a person's current need

TAT projective test
pioneers of developmental approach to career counseling: Eli Ginzberg
Sol Ginsburg
Sidney Axelrod
John Herma
longitudinal approach to career counseling: Super
Tiedman
O'Hara
John Crites: research in career maturity
Gelatt Decision Model: information is the fuel of the decision. although career choice is ongoing, there are times when a key decision must be made
information can be organized into three systems:
predictive (probable alternatives, actions)
value (preference)
decision (rules for evaluation)
DOT: Dictionary of Occupational Titles
9 digits
first three: occupational group
second three: tasks / skills
last three: alphabetize
OOH: Occupational Outlook Handbook
highlights: factors of the job, necessary training, earnings
*easiest guide to read
GOE: Guide for Occupational Exploration
12 interest areas
contrast effect: interviewers perception of interviewee affected by previous
compensatory effect: compensates for things not allowed at the job
spillover effect: engages in activities similar to work in leisure time
culture: that which distinguishes one group from another (that which characterized a group):
customs, values, attitudes, beliefs
contextualism: behavior must be assessed in the context of the culture in which it occurred
frustration-aggression theory: Dollard / Miller.
frustration - occurs when one is blocked so cannot reach one's goal
cognitive-dissonance theory: Festinger.
dissonance - state of inconsistency / incompatibility
reduced by denial
folkways vs. mores: folkways - describe correct, normal habitual behavior (embarrased by violating)
mores - beliefs re: rightness or wrongness of a behavior (punished by violating)
social distance scale: Bogardus.
how one feels toward other ethnic groups (racial, national, religious, linguistic, cultural)
culture vs. society: culture - defined by norms and values (found within a society)
society - self-perpetuating independent group who occupies a difinite territory
Ethnocentrism: view self as superior.
to use one's own culture as a yardstick to measure others. based on opinion
leads to patriotism, stability, pride
social exchange theory: a relationship will endure if rewards > costs
balance theory: (in social psychology). Festinger
cognitive dissonance theory
balanced cognitive state (replace inconsistency with consistency)
minimize dissonance
best predictors of retirement adjustment: financial security
health
therapeutic surrender: the client psychologically surrenders himself to counselor of different culture... becomes open with feelings / thoughts
connotation: emotional content of the word
"semantic differential"
emic: viewpoint
an anthropological term based on "emigration"
each client is an individual with individual differences
(vs. etic)
etic: viewpoint
humans are humans (treat each client the same, regardless of individual differences)
(vs. emic)
autoplastic: means of coping: change comes from within
(vs. alloplastic)
alloplastic: means of coping: change / alter external factors
(vs. autoplastic)
personalism: perception of client:
all people must adjust to environmental and geological demands
*see the client who has learned a set of survival skills rather than a diseased client
Stanley Milgram: obedience / authority in social settings
Osgood and Tannenbaum: Congruity Theory
attitudes that change the most are less extreme
strong beliefs... less likely to change attitude about
attitude = neutral... greater likelihood of change
Milton H. Erickson: brief psychotherapy
innovative techniques in hypnosis
Arnold Lazarus: behaviorist
BASIC-ID
multimodal treatment
known for initial work in systematic desensitization
Piaget stages:: cognitive development
sensorimotor
preoperation (2-7y)
concrete operation (7-11y)
formal operation (12+)
conservation: concrete operation
the knowledge that a substance's weight, mass, and volume remain the same even if it changes shape
reversibility: concrete operation
one can undo an action - an object can return to its initial shape
egocentrism: preoperational stage
the child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else
Lawrence Kohlberg stages:: moral development
preconventional (respond to consequences)
conventional (wants to meet standards of society, conform)
postconventional (self accepted morality, universal, ethical principles)
counterconditioning: behaviorist technique
goal: weaken or eliminate a learned response by pairing it with a stronger or desirable response
Harry Stack Sullivan: stage theorist
psychiatry of interpersonal relations
John Bowlby: bonding and attachment
(adaptive significance)
must bond <3 years, if severed "object loss" -> psychopathology
Harry Harlow: maternal deprivation and isolation in rhesus monkeys
attachment - innate tendency
(preferred terry cloth over wire mother)
stage theorists vs. developmentalists: stage - believe qualitative change between stages
developmental - continuous process, begins at conception, cephalocaudal
preconventional: Kohlberg (moral development)
Punishment / Obediance
Hedonism Orientation
conventional: Kohlberg (moral development)
Good Boy / Good Girl
Authority. Law. Order
post conventional: Kohlberg (moral development)
Accepted Law. Social Contract
Self Conscience. Universal ethics
Oedipus Complex: Freud
fantasy of sexual relations with opposite sex parent
phallic stage
leads to tension > wish to kill > identity with parent of same sex > values. conscious
Gibson: researched depth perception using a cliff
conceptualization of the unconscious mind: Freud
Eros vs. Thanatos: love of life
death
introjection: incorporate others views as one's own
denial: conscious act of denying an item's existance
displacement: impulse unleashed at a safe target
rationalization: intellectual excuse to minimize hurt feelings
compensation: overdevelop a trait to make up for negative shortcomings
repression: truly forget - automatic, involuntary
projection: attribute unacceptible qualities of self to other
reaction formation: cannot accept impulse - acts in opposite manner
identification: identifies with cause - hope to be perceived in positive light
successful resolution of Oedipus Complex: identification with aggressor (parent of same sex)
*leads to development of superego
unconscious mind: Freud.
information normally unknown or hidden from the client
preconscious mind: Freud.
capable of bringing ideas into awareness with minimal difficulty. can access conscious and unconscious minds
conscious mind: Freud.
aware of immediate environment
ego defense mechanisms: unconscious strategies to control tension, relieve anxiety.
distort reality
based on self-deception to protect self-image
psychosexual stages: Freud
oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
operant conditioning: B.F.Skinner
instrumental learning
classical conditioning: Ivan Pavlov
"reflexes"
respondent behavior
free association: analytic technique
instructing the client to say what comes to mind
Anna O: patient of Joseph Breuer
suffered from symptoms without organic basis - hysteria
after hypnosis, could talk
-> catharsis (talking cure)
interpretation (purpose:): make the client aware of unconscious process
SUDS: Subjective units of distress scale
form hierarchy to perform Wolpe's systematic desensitization
a behavior therapy technique for curbing phobic reactions
created via the process of introspection
mandalas: Carl Jung
drawings balanced around a center point
self-unification (magic protective circle)
Eidetic imagery: ability to remember minute details for an extended period of time
"photographic memory"
gone by the time a child reaches adolescence
Carl Jung: analytic psychology
archetypes - inherited unconscious factors
personality factors->MBTI
learning (3 types): reinforcement (operant conditioning)
association (classical conditioning)
insight
Alfred Adler: lifestyle is a predictable self-fulfilling prophecy based on our psychological feeling of ourself.
behavior must be studied in a social context
-lifestyle
-birth order
-family constellation
-organ inferiority (and the individual attempts to compensate)
-people wish to belong
-social connectedness
Eric Berne: Transactional Analysis (TA)
(cognitive approach, intellectual)
incorporates Gestalt Therapy
(experimental, affect)
Little Hans: psychoanalytic explanation of fear (explained using Oedipus Complex and castration anxiety)
(in opposition to Little Albert - behaviorist view)
Neo-Freudians stress social factors: A.Adler
K.Horney
E.Erikson
H.Stack Sullivan
E.Fromm
Joseph Breuer: "talking cure"
work on hysteria
insight: process of making a client aware of something which was previously unknown
increase self-knowledge
(technically, the term comes from W.Kohler (Gestalt theorist))
Analytic movement (theorists:): Freud
Jung
Adler
id: Freud.
pleasure principle
chaotic
instincts
ego: Freud.
reality
personality
superego: Freud.
conscience / morals
values
perfection
ideal
Joseph Wolpe: systematic desensitization
behaviorist technique
decreased reaction to anxious-producing stimuli (ameliorate phobic reactions)
based on counterconditioning
TAT: Henry Murray 1938
Thematic Apperception Test
projective test
Rudolph Dreikurs: student of Adler
first to discuss the use of group therapy in private practice
-> school setting
intoversion extroversion: Jung
personality types of MBTI
unconditional positive regard: counselor accepts the client without stipulation
non-directive
client-centered
person-centered
confrontation: illuminate discrepancies between clients and helpers view
Behaviorists: do not believe in mental constructs...
feel if it cannot be measured, it does not exist
tend to emphasize the power of the environment
strive for system reduction
do not believe in symptom substitution
obtain baseline measures.
Frederick Thorne: eclictic
Rollo May: existential counseling
E.G.Williamson: MN Viewpoint
match client traits with career
"trait-factor"
B.F.Skinner: reinforcement theory
"responses accompanied by satisfaction are repeated"
instrumental learning
reinforcers: tend to increase the probability that a behavior will occur
(+)something is added after operent
(-)something is taken away
punishment: decreases the probability that a behavior will occur
effects are usually temporary
it teached aggression
does not cause one to unlearn the behavior
stimulus generalization stimulus discrimation: second order conditioning

respond only to specific stimuli
extinction: ignoring a behavior... it will go away in time
(it will get worse before it gets better)
client is isolated from the reinforcement
psychoanalysis... (different than dynamic couseling): more sessions
utilizes the couch
not face to face
Daniel P. Schreber: "Memoirs of Mental Patient"
Freud's view: stuggle with homosexuality
factors negatively impacting social influence: competence
power
intimacy
counselor's social power or social influence is related to:: EAT:
Expertise
Attractiveness
Trustworthiness
triadic consultation: consultant works with a mediator to provide services to a client
process consultation: focus is NOT on the content of the problem, but on the process used to solve the problem
"doctor patient" model of consultation: Schein
consultation is paid to diagnose the problem and prescribe a solution
focus: agency, not individual
behavioral consultation: "social learning model"
consultant designs behavioral change models for the consultee to implement
Person-Centered: reflection vs. advice
*Conditions for Growth:
Empathy
Genuineness / Congruence
Unconditional (+) regard
-> self actualization
Carl Rogers: existential / humanistic
Person-Centered
retroflection: act of doing to self what you would like to do to others (Gestalt)

unfinished business
unexpressed emotions
Gestalt:: (word came from Wertheimer)
form, figure, or configuration unified as a whole
-here and now
-experience
-stay with the feeling
-"I" stattements
-psychodrama - role playing (experiment, exercise)
Carkhuff... Gazda: core dimensions (qualities) (+) therapeutic outcomes
[5 point scale]
empathy
genuineness
concreteness
respect
Fritz Perls: Gestalt Therapy
empty chair technique (individual can work on opposing feeling); underdog; topdog
use exaggeration
Donald Meichenbaum: cognitive restructuring
"Self Instructional Therapy"
stress inoculation techniques:
educational, rehearsal, and application phases
Aaron Beck: cognitive therapy
(differs from REBT)
dysfunctional ideas are too absolute and broad though not necessarily irrational
RBT: Maultsby (studied with A.Ellis)
Rational Behavior Therapy
written self analysis
didactic role = counselor
systematic desensitization (steps:): Joseph Wolpe
relaxation training
construction-anxiety hierarchy
desensitization in imagination
in vivo desensitization
therapeutic cognitive restructuring: (REBT)
irrational thinking - core of emotional disturbance
*cognitive dispution*
refuting irrational ideas and replacing them with rational ones
REBT ABC DE: Affecting event
Belief system
Consequence (emotional)
Disputing the irrational belief
Effective new philosophy
Epictetus: "people are disturbed not by things, but by the views they take of them"
REBT
Albert Ellis: REBT
assumes client's emotional disturbance is the result of irrational thoughts annd ideas
Reality Theory (client-counselor relationship): William Glasser
like a friend asking what is wrong
client and counselor be persistent and never give up
past... not a primary focus, successful behaviors
little use of diagnostic labels
William Glasser: Reality Theory
incorporates control theory (choice theory)
perception controls our behavior
rational emotive imagery: used by REBT
client imagines situations that has caused emotional disturbances, imagines change feeling using rational, logic, scientific thought
pioneers in behaviorism: Pavlov
Jones (Mary Carver)
Watson
E.Thorndike: "law of effect"
trial and error learning
assumes that (+) associations related to given behavior > "stamped in"
(-) > "stamped out"
Mary Carver Jones: learning - could serve as treatment for phobic reaction
Neal Miller: *biofeedback
first to demonstrate that animals could be conditioned to control autonomic processes
Skinner vs. Pavlov: operant conditioning (instrumental)

classical conditioning (respondent)
Yerkes-Dodson Law: a moderate amount of arousal actually improves performance
averse conditioning: pair (behavior item) with aversive stimulus to decrease satisfaction
existential vs. behaviorist: focus on hear and now - what the person can become, philosophy of helping, abstract, non-systematic, vague re: technique and procedures, rejects traditional diagnosis and assessment
Viktor Frakl: logotherapy - one has choices and cannot blame others or childhood for lack of fulfillment
existential philosophy
healing through meaning
paradoxical intention: advise client to purposely exaggerate a dysfunctional behavior in the imagination
(behaviorist)
covert sensitization: "imagine"
implosive therapy: T.G.Stampft
conducted in the imagination
flooding: in vivo
deliberate exposure to the feared stimuli with response prevention
(avoiding the fear > intensify it)
empathy vs. sympathy: the ability to experience another person's subjective experience / world and communicate that

compassion (it may imply pity)
Robert R. Carkhuff: scale for measurement of empathic understanding in interpersonal processes
1-5
Parent: E.Berne
"ought / should"
composed of values internalized from significant others
Nurturing or Critical
(superego)
(exteropsyche)
Adult: E.Berne
processes facts not feelings
(ego)
(neopsyche)
Child: E.Berne
(id)
(archaeopsyche)
Natural, Little Professor, Adapted
existentialism: stress: growth and self-actualization
*self determination
counselor helps the client discover meaning in life by doing a deed or suffering
rejects analysis and behaviorism for being deterministic and reductionistic
Moreno: group therapy
around 1960
theorist... preface to group therapy: Adler
"man's problems and conflicts are recognized in their social nature"
groups (three levels): primary - preventive. attempt to ward of problems and minimize the occurrence of difficulty
secondary - problem is present. attempt to lessed the severity / length of the problem
tertiary - deals wth individual difficulties / longstanding
content vs. process: content - material discussed
process - the manner in which the discussion and transaction occur (analyzing communication, transaction, interaction)
groups (three types): guidance - primary group. structured. preventive
counseling - focus: conscious concerns
therapy - psychodynamic. tertiary group
structured vs. unstructured: (-) less effective, pass over group stages
(+) speed up interaction and focus
horizontal vs. vertical: approach the group as a whole (interpersonal)
approach individuals in the group (intrapersonal)
cohesiveness: forces which bind group members together
norms: govern acceptible rules / behavior
stages of group formation:: forming
storming
norming
performing
adjourning
difficulty index: indicates the percent of individuals who answer each item correctly
test format: normative: can be compared to others taking the text
percentile rank
test format: ipsative: each item is independent of all other items
a client cannot be compared to others who have taken the test
(compares traits within the same individual)
achievement test: measures maximum performance
personality test inventory: measures typical performance
spiral test: items get progressively more difficult
parallel form: two versions or forms are interchangeable
same mean and standard error
validity: measures what it says it measures
MOST IMPORTANT
reliability: how consistent a test measures an attribute
content validity: (rational, logical)
how well the test examines or samples the behavior
construct validity: a test's ability to measure a theoretical construct (intelligence, self esteem, mechanical ability) *any trait you cannot "directly" measure or observe
predictive validity: empirical validity
reflects the test's ability to predict future behavior according to established criteria
criterion validity: concurrent
predictive
synthetic validity: researcher looks for tests that have been shown to predict each job element
incremental validity: describes the process by which a test is refined and becomes more valid as contradictory items are dropped.
refers to test's ability to improve predictors (gives information that other tests do not)
face validity: refers to the extent that a test looks or appears to measure the intended attribute
concurrent validity: how well the test compares to other instruments that measure the same behavior, construct, trait
convergent validity: a method used to assess a test's construct / criterion validity by correlating test scores with an outside source
discriminant validity: the test will not reflect unrelated variables
a RELIABLE test is not always VALID: a VALID test is always RELIABLE
test-retest reliability: give same test to same group 2 times, then correlate the scores (OK for items that remain stable: IQ; not for MOOD or MEMORY)
tests for stability
equivalent / alternate form reliability: give the same population alternate forms of identical test
parallel forms
must have counterbalancing
split half method: individual takes the entire test as a whole, then divided in half
inter-rater / inter-observer reliability: utilized with subjective tests to ascertain whether the scoring criteria are such that 2 persons -> roughly the same score
reliability coefficient: 1=perfect score - no error.
only with physicial measures

.9=excellent psychological test
.8=acceptable level of variance
(20% can be accounted for by error)
true variance: percentage of shared variance - the level of the same thing measured by both tests
*square the correlation "coefficient of determination"
Frances Galton: concluded that intelligence is normally distributed like height and weight
primarily genetic
Charles Spearman: felt intelligence was best explained via a 2 factor theory
G=general ability
S=specific ability
J.P.Fuilford: isolated 120 factors > intelligence
convergent - taking a number of thoughts and coming up with a single idea
divergent - coming up with a novel idea
Kudar Richardson coefficient of equivalence: internal consistency reliability
inter item consistency
also: Cronbach's alpha coeffieient
IQ: Intelligent Quotient
MA x 100%
CA
SAS - standard age score
mean = 100
SD = 15
WPPSI-R WAIS-III WISC-III: 3-7y
adults
6-16y
Wechsler IQ: WAIS-III
individual test
"performance" and "verbal" skills
mean = 100
SD = 16
John Entl: claimed he invented an electronic machine to analyze neural efficiency to take the place of paper/pencil IQ tests
Raymond B.Cattell: fluid - inherited neurological intelligence, declines with age, not dependent on culture
crystallized intelligence - from experience, culture, education
Arthur Jensen: Black vs. White controversy
1969
whites scored 10-15 points higher on IQ
psychometric: any form of mental testing
16 PF: Raymond B.Cattell
16 personality factor questionnaire
MBTI reflects work of:: Carl Jung
one who favors projective measures:: psychodynamic clinician
relies on unconscious mind
aptitude vs. achievement: measures potential (predictive validity)
measures what has been learned
school selection tests. aptitude or achievement: aptitude
aptitude - achievement
standard error of measurement: how accurate or inaccurate a test score is
low standard error = high reliability
threats to internal validity: maturation of subjects
mortality
instruments used
statistical regression
causal comparative design: true experiment EXCEPT
groups were not randomly assigned...
can use parametric statistical tests

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