AP Psych Ch. 02 - Neuroscience
Study the terms from our Neuroscience unit, as well as additional terms that are not in our textbook.
Terms
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- midbrain
- the middle division of brain responsible for hearing and sight; location where pain is registered; includes temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe
- endocrine system
- glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which regulate body and behavioral processes
- autonomic nervous system
- a division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary functions; made up of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
- nervous system
- the structures and organs that facilitate electrical and chemical communication in the body and allow all behavior and mental processes to take place
- (cerebral) cortex
- wrinkled outer portion of brain; center for higher order brain functions such as thinking, planning, judgment; processes sensory information and directs movement
- human genomes
- 30,000 genes needed to build a human
- adrenal glands
- endocrine glands located above the kidney and secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, which prepare the body for "fight or flight"
- neurogenesis
- production of new brain cells; November 1988: cancer patients proved that new neurons grew until the end of life
- Broca's area
- located in left frontal lobe; controls production of speech
- thalamus
- motor sensory relay center for four of the five senses; and with a brain stem and composed of two egg-shaped structures; integrates in shades incoming sensory signals
- occipital lobes
- primary area for processing visual information
- polygenic inheritance
- process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait; responsible for most important traits
- receptor site
- a location on a receptor neurons which is like a key to a lock (with a specific nerve transmitter); allows for orderly pathways
- forebrain
- top of the brain which includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex; responsible for emotional regulation, complex thought, memory aspect of personality
- neuroscience
- study of the brain and nervous system; overlaps with psychobiology
- dominant genes
- member of a gene terror that controls the appearance of a certain trait
- insulin
- hormone backpacks in the regulation of blood sugar by acting in the utilization of carbohydrates; released by pancreas; too much-hypoglycemia, too little-diabetes
- afferent neuron
- nerve cell that sends messages to brain or spinal cord from other parts of the body; also called sensory neurons
- reticular formation (RF) (RES)
- netlike system of neurons that weaves through limbic system and plays an important role in attention, arousal, and alert functions; arouses and alerts higher parts of the brain; anesthetics work by temporary shutting off RF system
- antagonist
- chemical that opposes the actions of a neurotransmitter
- positron emission tomography (PET scan)
- shows brain activity when radioactively tagged glucose rushes to active neurons
- hippocampus
- part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new long-term memories
- limbic system
- a donut ring-shaped of loosely connected structures located in the forebrain between the central core and cerebral hemispheres; consists of: septum, cingulate gyrus, endowments, hypothalamus, and to campus, and amygdala; associated with emotions and memories
- medulla (also medulla oblongata)
- part of the brain which controls living functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature
- convolutions
- the folds in the cerebral cortex that increase the surface area of the brain
- nature
- a person's inherited traits, determined by genetics
- all-or-none principle
- the law that the neuron either fires at 100% or not at all
- heritability
- the proportion of variation among individuals that is due to genetic causes
- association areas
- areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, rather, they are involved in higher mental processes such as thinking, planning, and communicating
- peripheral nervous system
- division that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body; includes all sensory and motor neurons; divided into somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
- phenotype
- the expression of genes
- brain
- portion of the CNS above the spinal cord; consists of hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
- hindbrain
- division which includes the cerebellum, Pons, and medulla; responsible for involuntary processes: blood pressure, body temperature, heart rate, breathing, sleep cycles
- serotonin
- neurotransmitter that affects sleep, arousal, mood, appetite; lack of it is linked with depression
- excitatory neurotransmitter
- chemical secreted at terminal button that causes the neuron on the other side of the synapse to fire
- relative refractory period
- a period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarize state and will only fire again if the incoming message open parentheses impulse) is stronger than usual; returning to arresting state
- action potential
- an electrical current sent down the axon of a neuron and is initiated by the rapid reversal of the polarization of the cell membrane
- norepinephrine
- noradrenaline; chemical which is excitatory, similar to adrenaline, and affects arousal and memory; raises blood pressure by causing blood vessels to become constricted, but also carried by bloodstream to the anterior pituitary which relaxes ACTH thus prolonging stress response
- pituitary gland
- endocrine gland that produces a large amount of hormones; it regulates growth and helps control other endocrine glands; located on underside of brain; sometimes called the "master gland"
- interneurons
- nerve cell that transmits messages between sensory and motor neurons
- myelin sheath
- a white, fatty covering of the axon which speeds transmission of message
- neurotransmitters
- chemical messengers released by terminal buttons into the synapse
- inhibitory neurotransmitter
- chemical secreted at terminal button that prevents (or reduces ability of) the neuron on the other side of the synapse from firing
- axon
- a single long, fiber that carries outgoing messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands
- dendrites
- branching extensions of neuron that receives messages from neighboring neurons
- mutation
- unexpected changes in the gene replication process that are not always evident in phenotype and create unusual and sometimes harmful characteristics of body or behavior
- glial cells
- supportive cells of nervous system that guide growth of new neurons; forms myelin sheath; holds neuron in place; provides nourishment and removes waste
- nature-nurture controversy
- deals with the extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior
- dopamine
- neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of dopamine linked with Parkinson's disease; too much is linked with schizophrenia
- twin studies
- studies as identical and rhetorical twins to determine relative influence of heredity and environment on human behavior
- agonist
- chemical that mimics or facilitates the actions of a neurotransmitter
- parathormone
- hormone that controls imbalances levels of calcium and phosphate in the blood and tissue fluid; influences levels of excitability; secreted by parathyroids
- gene
- a DNA segment on a chromosome that controls transmission of traits
- EEG (electroencephalogram)
- shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp
- nerve
- bundles of axons
- cerebellum
- part of the brain that coordinates balance, movement, reflexes
- amygdala
- part of the limbic system; influences emotions such as aggression, fear, and self-protective behaviors
- temporal lobes
- main area for hearing, understanding language (Wernicke's area), understanding music; smell
- refractory period
- after firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming message may be
- pons
- part of the brain involved in sleep/wake cycles; also connects cerebellum and medulla to the cerebral cortex
- parasympathetic nervous system
- a branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal body functions; it calms the body after sympathetic stimulation
- efferent neuron
- nerve cell that send messages from brain and spinal cord to other parts of body; also called motor neurons
- Phineas Gage
- railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function
- split brain patients
- people whose corpus callosum has been surgically severed
- neural impulse
- action potential; the firing of a nerve cell; the entire process of the electrical charge (message/impulse) traveling through inner on; can be as fast as 400 fps (with myelin) or 3 fps (no myelin)
- synaptic vesicles
- tiny oval-shaped sacs in a terminal of one neuron; assist in transferring mineral impulse from one neuron to another neuron by releasing specific neurotransmitters
- genotype
- an individual's genetic make-up
- aphasia
- inability to understand or use language
- DNA
- deoxyribonucleic acid; genetic formation in a double-helix; can replicate or reproduce itself; made of genes
- sensory neurons
- afferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from sensory organs to the brain and spinal cords
- hormone
- chemical that carries messages that travel through the bloodstream to help regulate bodily functions
- neural plasticity
- Ability of the brain to change their experience, both structurally and chemically
- neuron
- individual cells that are the smallest unit of the nervous system; it has three functions: receive information, process it, send to rest of body
- GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
- neurotransmitter that inhibits firing of neurons; linked with Huntington's disease
- recessive gene
- member of the gene terror that controls the appearance of a certain trait only if it is paired with the same gene
- genetic mapping
- dividing the chromosomes into smaller fragments that can be characterized and ordered so that the fragments reflect their respective locations on specific chromosomes
- genetics
- study of how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next
- nurture
- a person's experiences in the environment
- sympathetic nervous system
- a branch of the autonomic nervous system and prepares the body for quick action in emergencies; "fight or flight"
- psychobiology
- study that focuses on biological foundations of behavior and mental processes; overlaps with neuroscience
- chromosome
- threadlike structure within the nucleus of cells that contain genes
- acetylcholine (ACh)
- neurotransmitter that causes contraction of skeletal muscles; lack of Ach linked with Alzheimer's disease;
- thyroid gland
- located in neck; regulates metabolism by secreting thyroxine
- motor neurons
- efferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from spinal cord/brain to muscles and glands
- somatic nervous system
- division of peripheral nervous system; controls voluntary actions
- Wernicke's area
- located in left temporal lobe; plays role in understanding language and making meaningful sentences
- ACTH (arenocorticotropic hormone)
- released by adrenal glands; triggered by norepinephrine to prolong the response to stress (used in the sympathetic nervous system)
- magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
- creates a computerized image using a magnetic field and pulses of radio waves
- graded potential
- shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of the neuron (temporary); transmits a long cell membranes leaving neuron and polarized state; needs higher than normal threshold of excitation to fire
- natural selection
- the principle that those characteristics and behaviors that help organisms adapt, be fit, and survive will be passed on to successive generations, because flexible, fit individuals have a greater chance of reproduction
- parietal lobes
- processes sensory information including touch, temperature, and pain from other body parts
- terminal buttons (axon terminals)
- ends of axons that secrete neurotransmitters
- epinephrine
- adrenaline; activates a sympathetic nervous system by making the heart beat faster, stopping digestion, enlarging pupils, sending sugar into the bloodstream, preparing a blood clot faster
- selection studies
- studies that estimate the hereditability of a trait by breeding animals with another animal that has the same trait
- adaptation
- a trait or inherited characteristic that has increased in a population because it solved a problem of survival or reproduction
- axon terminal
- terminal button, synaptic knob; the structure at the end of an excellent terminal branch; houses the synaptic vesicles and neurotransmitters
- functional MRI (fMRI)
- shows brain activity at higher reolution than PET scan when changes in oxygen concentration in neurons alters its magnetic qualities
- pineal gland
- endocrine gland that produces melatonin that helps regulate sleep/wake cycle
- hypothalamus
- area of the brain that regulates behaviors such as, eating, drinking, sexual behaviors, motivation; also body temperature
- primary motor cortex
- generates neural impulses that control movement
- brainstem
- top of the spinal column
- computerized axial tomography (CT scan)
- creates a computerized image using x-rays passed through the brain
- behavioral genetics
- study of hereditary influences and how it influences behavior and thinking
- central nervous system
- the brain and spinal cord
- motor projection areas
- primary motor cortex; areas of the three boat cortex for response messages from the brain to the muscles and glands
- family studies
- studies of hereditability on the assumption that if a gene influences a certain trait, close relatives should be more similar on that trait in distant relative
- strain studies
- studies of hereditability it be a behavioral traits using animals that have been inbred to produce strains that are genetically similar to one another
- pancreas
- organ lying between the stomach and small intestine; regulates blood sugar by secreting to regulating hormones insulin and glucagon
- fraternal twins
- twins from two separate fertilized eggs (zygotes); share half of the same genes
- parathyroid
- for glands embedded in the thyroid; secretes parathormone; controls announces level of calcium and phosphate (which influence levels of excitability)
- gonads
- reproductive glands-male, testes; female, ovaries
- endocrine glands
- the bodies "slow" chemical communication by secreting hormones directly into the bloodstream
- thyroxine
- released by thyroid; hormone that regulates the body's metabolism; OVERACTIVE-over-excitability, insomnia, reduced attention span, fatigue, snap decisions, reduced concentration (hyperthyroidism); UNDERACTIVE-desire to sleep, constantly tired, weight gain (hypothyroidism)
- spinal cord
- portion of the CNS that carries messages to the PNS; connects brain to the rest of the body
- synapse
- the space between two neurons where neurotransmitters are secreted by terminal buttons and received by dendrites
- endorphins
- chemical similar to opiates that relieves pain; may induce feelings of pleasure
- ions
- electrically charged particles found both inside and outside a neuron; negative ions are found inside the cell membrane in a polarized neuron
- synaptic cleft
- synaptic gap or synaptic space; tiny gap between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron (almost never touch); location of the transfer of an impulse from one neuron to the next
- frontal lobes
- control emotional behaviors, make decisions, carry out plans; speech (Broca's area); controls movement of muscles
- corpus callosum
- large band of white neural fibers that connects to to brain hemispheres and carries messages between them; myelinated; involved in intelligence, consciousness, and self-awareness; does it reach full maturity until 20s
- polarization
- when the neuron is at rest; condition of neuron when the inside of the neuron is negatively charged relative to the outside of Enron; is necessary to generate the neuron signal in release of this polarization
- identical twins
- twins from a single fertilized egg (zygote) with the same genetic makeup; also called monozygotic (MZ) twins
- resting potential
- when a neuron is in polarization; more negative ions are inside the neuron cell membrane with a positive ions on the outside, causing a small electrical charge; release of this charge generates a neuron's impulse (signal/message)
- primary somatosensory cortex
- main sensory receptive area for the sense of touch