Psychobio Test 2
Terms
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- Branches of Neuroscience
-
-molecular
-cellular
-Systems
-Behavioral
-Cognitive - Hippocrates
- (~400 BCE) wrote about the brain and emotions and everything come from it
- Plato
- shared ideas with Hippocrates
- Aristotle
- (~320 BCE)said the heart and other internal organs were the seat of wisdom and intellect
- Lucretius
- (~55 BCE) The heart "is the seat of the intellect and mind"
- Galen
- (150 CE) demonstrated experimentally (using live dissection) that the brain was the center of control for physical and mental activity
- Medieval scholars
- intellect and emotions in various organs
- 16th and 17th centuries
- "heart-centeredness"
- Thomas Willis
- (1621-1675)argued that the brain receives sensations, stores memories, and is the source of behavior
- Renee Decartes
- (1640s)pineal body was the seat of the soul; thought behavior-->hydraulic fluids initiated by the soul; brain and body distinct split biology and philosophy
- Luigi Galvani
- 1780s; electrical stsitmulation of a nerve caused contraction of the muscle to which it was attached; dispelled descartes "hydraulic hypothesis"; static electricity and frog lets
- Gall
- 1881; phrenology-diffrenet parts of the brain have diff. functions; skull is molded on the brain; right about functional specialization; wrong about phrenology
- Muller
- 1828; Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies: a nerve that is activated carries only a single type of inoformation (ex. eyes pressed on-flashes of light)
- von Helmholtz, Hermann
- 1840s; "founder of physiological psychology"; neural impulses didn't travel at light speed; actually 50 m/s
- Fritsch & Hitizig
- 1888; electrical stimulation of the brain caused movement of the body
- Physiological psychology
- roots in physics, bio, and philosophy
- Broca, Paul
- ablation of human brain by studying stroke victims; a portion of the crerebral cortex of the left side of the brain functions necessary for speech; sppech not localized in 1 place
- Cells of the Nervous system
- Nerions & Glia
- "Principal" Neuron
- sends signals-excitable
- interneurons
- inhibatory; modulate activity of principle
- receptors
- specialized
- Glia
- provide a support network for neurons
- divisions of the nervous system
- CNS & PNS (somatic-voluntary & autnomic-involuntary-->sympathetic and parasympathetic)
- soma
- cell body
- axon
- carries electrical signals from the soma to boutons
- The Neuron Doctrine
-
Camillo Golgi vs. Santiago Ramon y Cajal;
*neurons are unitary and communicate w/ each other across a synapse
**signals travel in one direction: from the dendrites to the soma and from the soma to the axon terminals - Camillo Golgi
- developed Golgi method-->staining nervous tissue to examine individual nerve cells
- Ramon y Cajal
- said that chemical signals were received on dendrites-CORRECT
- dendrites
- primary target for input from other neurons
- action potential
- the electical signal; converted to a chemical signal at the terminal boutons
- Multipolar dendrite
- lots of dendrites
- Bipolar
- dendrites at one end, soma, then axon
- Unipolar cells
- touch, taste, sensitive neurons; only on process coming out of the cell body
- 3 types of Nueroglia
- astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes/schwann cells
- Astrocytes
-
contact blood vessels, some contact nuerons
-hold neurons in palce
-control enviornment surrounding neurons
-provide nourishment for neurons - Microglia
-
-phagocytosis
-immune system component w/in the brain-swelling
-smallest glia - Oligodendrocytes
-
wrap multiple axons
-found in CNS - Schwann cells
-
-wrap only a single axon
-found in PNS - Myelination
-
increases speed of communication
-saltatory conduction
-not all are myelinated
-destroyed in MS - Blood Brain Barrier
-
leaky blood bessels-->capillaries in brain less leaky
-astrocytic "end feet" and tight junctions-brain capillary endothelial cell - Electric charge of neurons
- more negative inside than out
- Membrane potential
- the charge differential across the membrane; potential to do work by moving charge across the membrane; resting membrane potential
- Ions found in intra and extra cellular fluid
- K+, Na+, Cl-, A- (anions only intracellular)
- voltmeter
- detects iddd. in voltage in cell compared to outside of it; use an electrode (glass)
- Concentration Gradient
- ions at a high concentration are under diffusion pressure to distribut evenly thoruhgout
- Electrostatic Gradient
- ions of a particular valence are attracted to areas of the opposite valence
- K+
- more inside than out
- Na+
- more outside than in
- Cl-
- more outside than in
- Equilibrium
- the concentration gradient and teh electrostic gradient for a particular ion species are at equal strength and are pushing on opposite sides of the membrane
- Equilibrium potential
- the difference in electical potenetial b/e the in out out of the nurons-membrane voltage
- Nerst Equation
- for any given ion you can figure our the voltage
- Resting Membrane Potential
- produced by membrane inpermeability to A- and Na+; controlled by K+
- Ways ions get in and out
-
-"Gated" ion channels
-Ionic "pumps"
-Ion-specific "leak" channels - Na+/K+ pump
- 3 Na out for every 2 K i; works against the concentration gradient and USES ENERGY/ATP
- Leak channel
- tunnel
- transporters
- Na+/K+ pumps
- oscilloscope
- record changes of membrane potential over time
- ion channel
- specialized protein-> allows ions to enter/leave cell
- voltage-dependent ion channel
- open and close according to value
- All or none Law
- once potenetial is triggered it is propagated w/o decrement to terminal buttons
- Passive Current flow in the axon
- is a current flow-like translatlantic cables
- Subthreshold Stimulation
- stimulation that doesn't lead to an action potenetial-"graded potenetial"-because it isn't strong enoguh
- Supratheshold Stimulation
- leads to an action potenntial-large depolarization of the membrane potential; is an ACTIVE process-incolves voltage gated ion channels
- Voltage Clamp Method
- meausres current across membrane at diff. voltages; passes current until membrane potenetial is what you want
- Hodgikin and HUxley
- Nobel prize b/c proposed existence of voltage gated ion channels
- tetraethyl-ammonium
- block outward current of K+
- tetrodotxin
- block inward current of Na+
- K+ channel
- built in delay
- what happens during the action potential?
-
-Na channels open and it enters cell-K+ channels open and it leaves cell
-Na channels become blocked
-K channels open and is driven out of the cell
-CMP returns to normal, and Na channels reset
-Membrane overshoots resting potential and returns to normal b/c of Na/K transporters - Propagation of the action potential
- Active process but depends on passive spread of electrical potential
- Nodes of Ranvier
- only site on meylinated axons w/ channels; faster
- Saltatory Conduction
- myelinated neurons; its jumps from node to node
- 2 types of synapses junctions
-
-electric synapse
-chemcial synapse - Electric Synapse
-
gap junction channels; rare;
connexons-6 to form a gap junction - Chemical synapse
- vesicles full of NTs released into cleft
- 3 types of synapses
-
-axondendritic
-axosomatic
-axoaxonic (rare) - 1900s debate
- soups vs. sparks
- Loewi, Otto
- discovery of 1st chemical synapse; aceylocholine; vagus nerve of heart; nobel prize 1936
- Criteria for a Neurotransmitter
-
present in presynaptic terminal
-released in response to presynaptic depolarization
-Ca2+ dependent
-specific receptors presnet on postsynaptic cell - Classes of Neurotransmitters
-
Excitatory-increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neruon will fire (glutamate); produces a depolarizing potential
-Inhibatory-decrease likelyhood; GABA; hyperpolarize
Inhibatory- - Acetylchoine
- skeletal and muscaular and cardiac
- Glutamate
- abundant in CNS; almost always excitatory
- GABA
- the most abundant inhibitory (always); open postsynaptic ion channels that allow Cl- in or K+ out
- What happens at the chemical synapse
-
-NT produced/packaged
-vesicle docked
-action potential arrives
-voltage gated Ca2+ channels open
-vesicles fuse w/ membrane
-bind w/ postsyn. receptors
-ion flow changes postsynaptic potential - EPSP
- Excitatory post synaptic potential; Na+ in; depolarization
- IPSP
- K out or Cl in; hyperpolarization or cancels effect of EPSPs, respectively
- Biogenic amines
- psychiatric disorders; serotonic and histamine
- Parkinson's Disease
- loss of dopaminergic cells; motor disabilities; lose posture, coordination, and balance; treatment L-dopa
- axon hillock
- where action potential is triggered
- temporal summation
- a single input fires rapidly, raising the postsynaptic potential above threshold
- Spatial summation
- many inputs fire simultaneously (or nearly so); at one time, but strong
- 2 mechanisms of turning off a NT
- reuptake and deactivating enzymes
- Ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors
- an ion channel; ligand gated ion channel
- metabotropic
- recepter separate protein-G protein; opening of an ion channel is a 2ndary effect
- 2 major receptors for acetylcholine(ACh)
- Nicotinic and Muscarinic
- ACh inactivated by
- AChE--->Acetate + Choline; the choline is taken up into presynaptic cell to make more acetylcholine
- 4 major receptors for Glutamate
-
-AMPA, Kainate, NMDA-ionotropic and excitatory
-mGluR-metabotropic; excitatory or inhibitory - GABA receptors
-
-GABAa,b, and c
a-ionotropic->Cl
b-metabotropic->K+
c-ionotropic->Cl- - Dopamine (DA)receptors
-
D1 and D2
1-postsynaptic, metabotropic
2-autoreceptor, metabotropic - autoreceptors-
-
NT receptors activated by NT released from pesynaptic neuron
-decrease te amount of NT released by presynaptic cell-decreases Ca influx
-is a mechanism of NT regulation - axoaxonic synapses
- DONT contribute to neural integration; modulate release of NT from presynatpic terminal;
- Presynaptic faciliation
- incrase release of NT
- Presynaptic inhibition
- decrease NT release
- neuromodulators
- released by neurons; larger quantitiies than NTs; diffuse over bigger distances; localized area of brain; effects widespraed-vigilance, sensitivity to pain
- hormones
- released by glands or specialized cells in organs; carried through bloodstream; slower effects than NT; long lasting behavioral effects; ex. testosterone-aggresiveness
- achacar
- atribuir
- aguzado
- una persona que es astuta y hábil
- alacena
- lugar donde guarda la comida
- ánimo
- valor
- cautelosamente
- con precaución
- cumbre
- parte superior de una montaña
- embrujado
- lugar donde pasan cosas sobrenaturales
- peregrino
- extraño o poco común
- remontar
- subir a un lugar alto
- trozo
- pedazos de un objecto
- abrumador
- exhausting, overwhelming
- audaz
- atrevida
- calvicie
- calvo, baldness
- claudicar
- to give in
- humedecerse
- con mucho agua
- Preso
- en la carcél
- resplandecerse
- to shine
- recelo
- sospecha
- socavar
- to undermine
- el, la calvera
- womanizer, skull
- el, la canal
- canal, gutter
- el, la capital
- capital money, capital city
- el, la cólera
- cholera, anger
- el, la coma
- coma, comma
- el, la cometa
- comet, kite
- el, la corneta
- bugler, bugle
- el, la corte
- cut, court
- el, la cura
- priest, cure
- el, la editorial
- editorial, publishing house
- el, la frente
- gront of building or military, forehead
- el, la gallina
- coward, hen
- el, la guardia
- guardsman, guard
- el, la guía
- guide man, guide book
- el, la mañana
- tomorrow, morning
- el, la orden
- order, order command
- el, la parte
- dispatch, message
- el, la pendiente
- earring, slope
- el, la policiía
- policeman, police force
- el, la vocal
- male member of a board, vowel