Chapter 13 Theories of Personality
Terms
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- Big Five traits
- In personality research, the five most important clusters of personality traits, including extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience.
- secondary trait
- In Allport's theory, a characteristic seen only in certain situations, such as "uncomfortable in large crowds" and "likes to drive sports cars."
- subjective well-being
- Person's evaluation of his or her life satisfaction.
- unconscious
- In psychoanalytic theory, psychic processes - thoughts and desires - that are far below the level of conscious awareness.
- masochistic
- Depriving pleasure from being mistreated.
- defense mechanisms
- In Freudian theory, mental activities designed to reduce the tension resulting from a desire of the id that the superego finds socially inappropriate.
- collective unconscious
- According to Jung, the second, deeper layer of the unconscious that stores memory fragments from our ancestral past. All humans presumably share the same collective unconscious.
- libido
- Energy for all human behavior provided by the id.
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs
- Theory stating that human motives are arranged in a hierarchy, with the most basic needs (physiological, safety, belongingness, and love) at the bottom and the more highly developed needs (esteem and self-actualization) at the top. Each lower need must presumably be satisfied before the next level of need can be addressed.
- humanistic approach
- Approach emphasizing that humans have enormous potential for personal growth. They have the ability to care deeply for other people and to establish meaningful, productive lives for themselves.
- free association
- A psychoanalytic technique which requires a patient to report anything that occurs to them; normal critical analysis should be suspended.
- ego
- In psychoanalytic theory, the component of the personality that deals with the outside world. This serves as a mediator between the id and reality.
- trait
- Consistent tendency to have certain kinds of beliefs, desires, behaviors, and so forth.
- Oedipus complex
- In psychoanalysis, a conflict in which a boy's sexual impulses are directed toward his mother and he views his father as a rival. The young boy is afraid that his father may punish him for his desires by castrating
- individualistic cultures
- Cultures in which a person's identity focuses on themselves as an individual ( e.g. United State and Canada). Also called independent cultures.
- latent content
- Underlying, unconscious aspects of a dream.
- psychodynamic approach
- Approach that emphasizes childhood experience as determinant of adult personality and unconscious mental processes and conflict as influences on most human behavior.
- collectivist cultures
- Cultures in which a person's identity focuses on interconnectedness with others (e.g. Latin American countries). Also called interdependent cultures.
- trait approach
- Approach to personality proposing that human personality is a combination of specific stable, internal personality characteristics, such as shyness or aggressiveness.
- Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
- Objective personality test that asks a large number of true-false questions in order to assess personality traits.
- triad
- Groups of three individuals.
- social cognitive approach
- Approach to personality that emphasizes observational learning and the central importance of cognitive factors.
- five-factor model
- In personality research, the five most important clusters of personality traits, including extraversion, emotional stability, and openness to experience. Also known as the Big Five traits.
- genital stage
- Final stage of psychosexual development in which, during puberty, sexual urges presumably reappear and the genitals once again become an erogenous zone. Freud argued that genital pleasure during this stage arises from sexual relationships with others.
- id
- In psychoanalytic theory, the component of personality that consists of the basic drives, such as eating and sexual activity, providing the energy (or libido) for all human behavior. This lacks moral judgment and it is unconscious.
- Rorschach Inkblot Test (TAT)
- Projective test in which people respond to a series of ambiguous inkblots, and the responses are analyzed according to characteristics such as recurring themes, number of responses, the region of the inkblot that attracts attention, and whether the nature of the response is common or unusual.
- object-relations approach
- Psychodynamic approach that focuses on the nature and development of ideas about the self in relation to other people. This approach minimizes Freud's notion of drives and emphasizes the developing relationship between the self and objects - that is, significant persons.
- conditional positive regard
- According to Carl Rogers, the situation in which positive regard is given only in certain conditions; moreover, parents and other important people withhold their love and approval if the child fails to conform to their own standards.
- self-actualization
- In Carl Roger's person-centered approach, the natural, inborn tendency for humans to fulfill their true potential.
- latency stage
- One of the stages of psychosexual development during which children's sexual feelings presumably remain in the repressed state in which they were left at the end of the phallic stage. According to Freud, children are presumably ashamed and disgusted about sexual issues, and so they tend to avoid members of the other gender.
- oral stage
- One of the stages of psychosexual development during which the mouth presumably experiences the most tension. According to Freud, the id tries to reduce this tension by encountering the child to suck on nipples, thumbs, and pacifiers.
- interdependent cultures
- Cultures in which a person's identity focuses on interconnectedness with others (e.g. Latin American countries). Also called collectivist cultures.
- cardinal trait
- In Allport's theory, personality trait that dominates and shapes behavior.
- projection
- Defense mechanism that involves attributing your own unacceptable feelings to another person.
- manifest content
- The conscious, remembered story line of a dream.
- superego
- In psychoanalytic theory, the component of the personality that includes individual personal conscience, ideals, and values. This acquires its principles from society, via the parents.
- heritability
- In the nature-nurture question, the extent to which the variation in some characteristic can be traced to differences in heredity as opposed to differences in environment. This index can vary between 0% (little of the variation can be traced to heredity) to 100% (almost all of the variation can be traced to heredity).
- self-efficacy
- Person's belief in his or her ability to organize and perform actions required to reach desired goals.
- personality
- Pattern of consistent feelings, thoughts, and behaviors that originate within the individual.
- observational learning
- Learning of new behaviors by watching and imitating the behavior of others. Also known as modeling and social learning.
- fixation
- In psychoanalytic theory, becoming rigidly locked in conflict about a particular erogenous zone.
- displacement
- Defense mechanism that involves redirecting emotional feelings (e.g. anger) to a substitute target.
- unconditional positive regard
- According to Carl Rogers, total, genuine love without special conditions or strings attached.
- psychoanalytic approach
- Psychodynamic approach that refers specifically to Sigmund Freud's original theory.
- reaction formation
- Defense mechanism that involves replacing an anxiety-producing feeling with its exact opposite, typically going overboard.
- anal stage
- One of the stages of psychosexual development during which the erogenous zone presumably shifts to the anal region. Freud proposed that toddlers experience satisfaction when this region is stimulated by retaining or eliminating feces.
- regression
- Defense mechanism that involves acting in ways characteristic of earlier life stages.
- projective tests
- Psychological tests that ask people to respond to a standard set of stimuli that are vague and ambiguous. These stimuli presumably evoke a person's feelings, needs, and personality characteristics. The two most common tests of this type are the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
- phallic stage
- One of the stages of psychosexual development during which the erogenous zone presumably shifts to the sex organs, and the child presumably finds pleasure in masturbation. Freud proposed that boys in this stage experience an Oedipus complex.
- erogenous zones
- In psychoanalytic theory, parts of the body in which the libido is centered.
- reciprocal influences
- Principle stating that initial individual differences become even stronger because of three factors - personal/cognitive, behavior, and environment - all influencing each other.
- repression
- Defense mechanism that involves pushing back unpleasant feelings and unacceptable thoughts into the unconscious.
- person-situation debate
- Controversy with the following positions: The person position states that each person possesses stable, internal traits that cause him or her to act consistently in a variety of situations. The situation position states that each person does not possess stable, internal traits; instead, his or her behavior depends upon the specific characteristics of each situation.
- conscious
- In psychoanalytic theory, this includes everything you are aware of at a particular moment. These experiences include our awareness of the outside world and of our perceptions, thoughts, and feelings.