Psych135_Final

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Functional Equivalence Hypothesis: visual imagery is not identical to visual perception, though it is functionally equivalent.
Mirror Neuron System: Primary Motor Cortex, Broca's area, Superior Temporal Sulcus
Categorical Perception: is the perception of different sensory phenomena as being qualitatively, or categorically, different (as opposed to "continuous perception" i.e. smooth continuum). Categorical perception (CP) is induced by learning.
The "Coordinate-Categorical Specialization" Theory: Right Hemisphere specializes in Coordinate (3 ft., 45o, 10 lbs...), Left Hemisphere specializes in Categorical (on, in, beside, above, below...),
Prepositional Dative: Contains preposition 'to'. E.g. "Give a muffin to a moose"
Analogue code: are a form of knowledge representation that preserves the main perceptual features of what is being represented (for that stimuli)
Phonetic refinement theory vs. Phonemic-restoration effect: do it from memory (this is correct answer...)
Selective-encoding insights: involve filtering for important incoming information
"the wug test": choose a non-sensical word ('wug') and see how kids pick up the grammaer rules wrt that word...
salience: salience affects retrieveability. E.g. watching a car accident increases subjective assesment of traffic accidents.
Pragmatics: the study of how people use language
Explicit reference-frame hint being asked to modify (e.g. considering head as tail, etc.): participant are asked to modify an ambiguous picture (e.g. considering head as tail, etc.)
Implicit reference-frame hint: participants are shown another (realigned) ambiguous image (from a different perspective).
Survey knowledge: involves estimated distances between landmarks.
Visual Mask: is a pattern that wipes out the previously presented stimulus from iconic memory
Lexical Access: the identification of a word that allows us to gain access to the meaning of the word from memory. It comvines info from multiple levels of processing (e.g. letters, their features, and actual words)
Attentional Hypothesis: mental practice can aid ignoring distracters and prime attention on important cues and at important junctions in performance.
Phonetic Refinement Theory and TRACE model(theory of ordinary perception): We use top-down processes to determine what we heard. Perception begins with 3 levels of feature detection: level of acoustic features, level of phonemes, and level of words
Inclusion Fallacy: judges a greater likelihood that EVERY member of a category has a certain characteristics than every member of a subset of that category. e.g. ALL republicans are *******s, rather then all Republicans from Texas. (i.e. subset is obviously much smaller)
Regression toward the mean: those with extreme scores at one point in time will, probably have less extreme scores the next time
Dynamic (Language): Languages change by word absorption, and grammar rules shift.
Suprasegmental: The cues of language that come from pitch, intensity and durational differences in the pattern of speech.
Framing Effects: the way that options are presented influence the selection of an option. e.g. vaccine A that saves 200 but kill 400 vs. vaccine B that saved 600 with %60 prob.
Displaced Reference: Language can refer to things not present in the here and now
Selective-combination insights: involves synthesizing encoded and compare insights into new info
Elimination by Aspects: eliminating alternatives (1 by 1) by focusing on aspects of each alternative. In particular, focusing on only one aspect (attribute) of the various options.
Transformational grammer: the study of how propositions can be rearranged to form various phrase structures.
Affirming the antecedent: if p, then q. P - therefore q ("Modus Ponens").
Divergent Thinking: trying to generate as many possible solutions to a problem
Depictive or Functional Equivalency: Imagery and perception recruit the same processes. Same brain areas are involved in perception and imagery
causality (east vs. west): East: External vs. West internal
Prepositional vs. Double-object Datives: Datives that alternate are ones where causing to give results in causing to have: "Annette sent the boarder a package", "Annette sent the package to the boarder". Datives that do not alternate are those where causing to give does not result in causing to have: "Goldie drove her bus to the lake", "Goldie drove the lake her bus"
Lexical vs Comprehension Processes: Processes regarding learning how to read; Lexical processes re used to identify letters and words while comprehension processes are used to make sense of the text as a whole.
Casual Inference: how people make judgment about whether something causes something else.
Word Superiority Effect: Letters are more easily recognized in the context of a word than alone. Words are also more easily recognized after processing a sentence
Generative (Language): The basic units can be used to build a limitless number of meanings.
Permission Schema: why it's easier to check validity of rule due. "if true, then have permission to do it" (e.g. if passenger is immunized, then car enter country).
Language: Characteristics: Communicative, Arbitrary, Structured, Generative, Dynamic
Declarative Knowledge: knowledge of facts that can be stated (e.g. date of birth)
Landmark Knowledge: info about features at a location (based both on imaginal and propositional representations)
Relative-position heuristic: tendency to represent the relative positioning of landmarks (& boundaries) to reflect conceptual knowledge rather then actual spatial configuration (e.g. LA vs. Vegas)
Ease of Rertievability:: classes who instances are more easliy retrievable will seem larger. e.g. does list of names have more men then women depends on relative frequency of famous names...
Linguistic Relativity: people are influenced by the language(s) they speak
subjective utility vs. subjective probability: judgment based on utility (value) rather then objective criteria, vs judgment based on estimates of likelihood rather then objective statistical computation
Isomorphic: 2 problems are Isomorphic when their formal structure is the same but their content differs (i.e. algebra problems).
Psychoneuromuscular Hypothesis: The muscles fire at a low grade level of the same pattern during the mental practice as the physical practice.
Propositional Theory: An alternative theory to the dual-code theory. The visual and verbal symbols are propositions (i.e. Do not store in form of images). Instead have a "generic" code that is called "propositional" - to imagine a ball on top of a box would require a string statement: ON (BALL, BOX). Stores the meaning of the concept. Create a verbal or visual code by transforming the propositional code
Wernick's Aphasia: difficulty in understanding sentences as well as random generation of sentences, e.g. "yeah, that was the pumpkin furthest from my thoughts".
Onomatopoeia: the phenomenon of the sound-pattern of a word reflecting its meaning.
Echopraxia: is the involuntary repetition or imitation of the observed movements of another (person). Imitation is performed immediately with the speed of a reflex action
semantics: the study of meaning in a language
thematic roles: thematic relations express the meaning that a Noun phrase plays with respect to the action or state described by a sentence's verb. For example, in the sentence "Susan ate an apple", Susan is the doer of the eating, so she is an agent; the apple is the item that is eaten, so it is a patient.
Law of small numbers: small samples are representative of population they are drawn from
Gambler's Fallacy: After a run of reds, black will make the overrall run more representative
Emotional Stroop Effect: person is slower naming a color of taboo (or emotional) words vs. neutral words
Premise: are propositions about which arguments are made.
Broca's Aphasia: verbal comprehension is preserved though speech is agrammatical (unlike Wernicks'). E.g. "...arm, talking - bad"
Percept: Object of Perception
symmetry heuristic: tendency to represent shapes as being more symmetrical then really are
Change blindness: the phenomenon where a person viewing a visual scene apparently fails to detect large changes in the scene (e.g switching person asking 4 directions)
Phrase Structure grammar: analysis of the structure of phrases as they are used.
Morphemes: morphemes are sequences of phonemes. morphemes are the smallest units of meaning like /dog/ which is one morpheme or /doggy/ which is two.
Procedural Knowledge: knowledge of procedures that can be implemented (e.g. steps in trying shoelaces)
Phoneme Restoration Effect: missing phoneme implied by the context. Exa: "The *eel was on the axle" vs. "The *eel was on the shoe."
Probability: Frquentists vs. Bayesians: Frquentists: prob is always defined over a referece class as infintie # of events, thus single envets don't make sense. Bayesians: prob refers to a subjective degree of confidence, thus can assign to single event
Causative Transitive: A subject causes object to do: "Bob boiled the egg", "Tim bounced the ball"
Perky Effect: Perky asked participants to imagine an object (a banana) while fixating onto a blank screen. At the same time unbeknownst to the participant , an image of that object was gradually projected onto the screen, with increasing intensity, starting below the threshold for conscious perception. The projected stimulus influenced the subjects' experience so that their images changed according to the picture they were presented with.They all continued to believe the they were just imagining the stimulus when the intensity was above threshold, for example they remarked the banana was vertically and not horizontal as they originally imagined, or imagined an elm leaf when they first started with a maple.
Symbolic Codes: is a form of knowledge representation that has been chosen arbitrarily to stand for something (e..g roman numerals)
Proposition: is an assertion which may be true or false. E.g. psych students are brilliant.
Linear Syllogism: the relationship among the terms is linear and involves quantitative or qualitative comparison. e.g. "you are smarter then jonatha". Jonathan is smarter then Esther. who's the smartets?
Representativeness Heuristics: we judge whether obj X belongs to class Y by how representative X is of Y. E.g: steve is shy, seculded and needs structure and quite. Is steve a farmer, librarian, or saleman?
Content Morphemes: are the words the convey the bulk of the meaning of a language
Lexicon: is the entire set of morphemes in a given language.
Stereotype Threat: GRE scores lower for blacks when told is a diagnostics test vs. lab test (i.e reduces memory or prompts hightened attention in athletes)
Bounded Rationality: we are rational, but within limits...
Functional Fixedness: is the inability to realize that something known to have a particular use may also be used for performing other functions.
Content vs. Container Locatives (Alternating verbs vs. Non-alternating verbs.): "load hay into wagon" vs. "load wagon with hay". Alternating verbs involve a ballistic force in multiple directions, e.g. "Inject, shower, splash, spray". Non-alternating verbs involve forceful expelling from inside a volume Emit, e.g. excrete, expectorate, expel,
Cognition is off-loaded: example: Tetris player will rotate block until piece fits. Example2: change blindness
Rotation Heuristic: tendency to represent slightly slanted figures (&boundaries) as more vertical or horizontal then they are
Obligation Schema: why it's easier to check validity of rule due. "if true, then obligated to do something" (e.g. if you pay me $100, then I give you the house)
Problem Solving Cycle: Problem Identification, Definition of Problem, Constructing a strategy for problem solving, organizing information about a problem, allocation of resources, monitoring problem solving, evaluating problem solving
Base Rate: the prevalence of an event (or characteristics) within its population of events.
Telegraphic Speech: can be used to describe 2-3 word utterance in children 2-3 years old
Pigdin and Creole: Parents develop Pigdin from many mother tongues (mixing up words and syntax, usually without articles or prepositions). Their children develop Creole (keeping core words, adding prepositions, etc
Mood and Attention (Levels of Focus): triangle vs. squares example: Sadder people base their decisions on the local features, and report doing so.
Transitives vs. Intransitives:: Causitives can alternate if the causation is direct: "The window broke", "Darren broke the window"
Positive Transfer: occours when the solution of an earlier problem makes it easier to solve a new problem
Affordance: an object is percieved in terms of affordance - the actions that object affords. I.e. pencil vs. stick. surface textures and edges provide obj-rec, not geomtery of angles and planes
Availability Heuristics: The easier it is to consider instances of class Y, the more frequent we think it is. E.g. which are more: words with R at the beginning or words that have R as the 3rd letter?
Function Morphemes: add detail and nuance to the meaning of the 'Content Morphemes' or help the content Morphemes fit the grmaticall context. e.g. the suffix 'ist', the prefix 'de', the conjuction 'and' or the article 'the'
Negative Transfer: occours when solving an earlier problem makes it harder to solve a alter one
pragrmatic action vs. Epistemic actions: pointing, gestures vs. actions that provide info, asking questions
Problem Solving Cycle: Identification, Definition, strategy, organizing, resources allocation, monitoring, evaluating
Right-angle Bias: tendency to represent intersections as forming 90 angles v.s what's real
Language Acquisition Stages (infant): Cooing: long vowel sounds (ooooooh), Babbling (6-10 m.o.): consonant-vowel repetitions (dadadada), 12-18 mo of 50 words vocab, 24 mo use 2-word sentences
epiphenomenon: An epiphenomenon is a secondary phenomenon that occurs alongside a primary phenomenon (i.e. a side-effect).
Convergent thinking: trying to narrow down multiple possibilities to converge on a single best answer
Categorical Syllogism: is a logical argument where the conclusion is inferred from 2 premises. E.g: all students are athletes. All athletes are tall. Thus, all students are tall.
Problem Space: is the universe of all possible solutions to a problem
Denotation: is the strict dictionary definition of a word.
consequent: "then Q". The second half of a hypothetical proposition. In the standard form of such a proposition, it is the part that follows "then".
Syllogism: is a deductive argument that involves drawing conclusions from two premises (a major and a minor premise)
route-road knowledge: involves specific pathways for moving from one location to another
Initial learning Hypothesis: Mental practice should have its greatest impact at the initial verbal-motor stage of learning
feature hypothesis vs. functional hypothesis: children form definitions that include too few features (e.g cat is "doggie") vs. theory that suggests that kids learn first words that describe important functions or purposes
Coarticulation: the phenomenon in speech production where sounds overlap as compared to being produced as entirely separate sounds.
Dual-System Hypothesis the theory that 2 languages are represented (somehow) in separate systems of the mind.: the theory that 2 languages are represented (somehow) in separate systems of the mind.
Cognitive Map: internal representations of our physical env. Has 3 types: landmark knowledge, route-road knowledge and survey knowledge)
Fallacy: erroneous reasoning in judgment and reasoning
Conditional Reasoning: Only "Affirming the antecedent" and "Denying the Consequent" are valid for testing validity or a rule. E.g. "If person is drinking beer, then must be 21" if drinking beer (P), then 21, if 16 years old (q), then not drinking beer.
Overextension errors: "daddy" means all grown up men who wear beards
Motherese: "Child-Directed Speech": simpler sentences, higher voice, slower speech, etc.
Illusory Correlation: tendency to see relationships in data even when no such relationships exist (e.g. stereotypes)
Single-System Hypothesis: 2 languages are represented in just one system.
Inductive Reasoning: reasoning from specific facts to greach a conclusion. (seen 3 birds fly, thus ALL birds fly)
Attentional hint: participant are directed ot regions of the figure where realignments were to occor
Depictive Imagery examples: Linear displacement (e.g., Island), Scaling (e.g., Rabbit Elephant), Deficits in perception parallel deficits in imagery, Visual Fill, Imagery scanned for previously unrecognized details
Visualization is...: motivational when you are a novice, Skill-building as an intermediate, Strategy-building or attentional as an expert
Container Locative: The container being changed is the focus of the sentence
Content Locative: The moving object is the focus of the sentence
Conjunction Fallacy: giving a higher estimate for a subset of events than for original set itself (e.g. lisa bank teller AND feminist).
Anchoring-and-adjustment Heuristics: Initial estimated values affect the final estimates, even after considerable adjustments. E.g calculate 8*7*6*5... vs. 1*2*3*4...
Deductive Reasoning: reasoning from general statements to reach a conclusion. (everyone has 1 head, thus Mary's child has 1 head)
converting odds to probability: odds is "chances for":"chances against." Prob is "chances for"/"total chances." E.g. 3:1 odds = 3/4 probability. use first number for numeratro and sum as denominator. E.g. 3:1 => 3/3+1 => 3/4
Denying the Consequent: If p, then q. Not q - therefore not p. ("Modus Tollens")
Causative Intransitive: The object is doing its thing: "The egg boiled", "The ball bounced"
McGurk Effect: interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception. E.g. lip movements to "ba" sound though soundtrack indicates "da" changes perception
Alignment heuristic: tendency to represent misaligned landmarks (&boundaries) as aligned
Antecedent: "if P". The first half of a hypothetical proposition. In the standard form of such a proposition.
Hindsight Bias: looking at a situation retrospectively and believing we can see all the signs and events leading up to its outcome...
Incubation: putting the problem aside for a while without consciously thinking about it.
Dual Coding Hypothesis: There are two codes in the brain, one verbal and one visual based
Saccades: our eyes move in rapid sequential movements as they fixate on successive clumps of text
Selective-comparison insights: involve comparison of how new info relates to old info
Phonemes: smallest units of sound that are considered part of the language,
Linguistic Universal: is a statement that's true for all languages (e.g. "All languages have nouns and verbs").
Cognition is situated: Brazilian children can solve complex sums when haggling in the market, but cannot do the same ones on paper in a classroom setting.
Satisficing: rather then considering all possibilities within a problem space, we select first option that seems satisfactory or just good enough.
Evidence for Dual Code Theory: Paivio compared concrete words (potato, horse) with abstract words (justice, love) - found participant were better able to recall concrete words. He Concluded that dual code was created for concrete words (analog & verbal label) but not for abstract words. Visual information has different characteristics than verbal code: Visual information interferes with spatial information, Verbal labels interfere with spoken words, Shows each type of code is affected by different manipulations
Connotation is a word's emotional overtones.: is a word's emotional overtones.
Transparency: is when people see analogies where they do not exists b/c of similarity of content.
Double-Object Dative: contains two objects, the "indirect" and "direct" objects. E.g. "Give a moose a muffin"
Overregularization: applying the general rules of language to the exceptional cases. E.g. Fish => Fishes; run => runned; go => goed
Language: Syntax: word order in sentences

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