Rhetorical Terms

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Techniques and Terms in a Rhetorical Analysis or Argument

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Fact: As opposed to an opinion, this is an assertion supported by solid, irrefutable, quantifiable or empirical evidence or by expert testimony. A ____ is usually widely accepted as true. Writers use these as one way to support a claim.
Exaggeration: means overstating to emphasize or illustrate a point, appeal to emotion, or get attention. An effective technique, especially when writers are using humor or irony, it is also called hyperbole.
Dialectic: describes a process of seeking truth through questioning. The Platonic model of this is a cooperative exchange between two speakers, beginning with a definition of terms and ending with synthesis that approaches philosophic, universal understanding. In one respect, this differs from rhetoric because the former employs the syllogism and aims at certainty, while the latter employs the enthymeme and aims at establishing probabilities.
Dilemma: occurs when all choices presented appear to be unacceptable. Usually this is false and easily refuted because other alternatives can be found. Writers may use this to make choices appear limited.
Delivery: In oral rhetoric, refers to the ways an orator uses his or her voice and gestures to accompany the spoken words.
Ethos: In rhetorical theory, the appeal of speakers or writers to their own credibility and character is called ethics.
Authority: when the audience believes the author knows what he or she is talking about. Writers may appeal to external and respected (experts) to strengthen their arguments.
Example: one specific instance used by writers to illustrate, clarify, or bolster an argument by showing precedents. Anecdotes may serve as extended examples. Although most people find examples helpful and entertaining, they are not considered sufficient for evidence.
Appeal: an attempt to earn audience approval or agreement by means of persuasive techniques. Three common methods include appeals through logos (logic of the argument), pathos (appeal to the emotion of the argument), or ethos (character or authority of the writer).
Claim: is a statement that something is, or is not, so. They may be taken at face value because the writer is sincere or believable. However, if a ____ is not likely to be readily accepted, it must be supported by evidence. A ____ backed by evidence is an argument. The thesis statement of an essay often contains its major _____.
Allusion: a brief reference to a historical or literary figure, event, or object that the target audience would respect, thus bringing respect to the writer using the reference. For example, allusions to the Bible and Shakespeare are common among English and American writers.
Parallelism: means repetition of a word or grammatical structure for effect. The classic example comes from Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" speech, with the repetition of the phrase "I have a dream." Usually the repetition will follow the same grammatical pattern (such as Subject-Verb-Object). This is used for emphasis, rhythm, and poetic effect.
Refute: (rebut) is to successfully argue against an argument. Many arguments contain a refutation section in which the writer points out fallacies in his opponent's argument.
Logos: Appeals to logic show readers that writers are sensible and thoughtful. The basis of logic is the deductive syllogism, a series of generalizations (premises) that lead to a conclusion. Logic can also be inductive, as are classical scientific experiments. From a mass of specific and particular data, a conclusion is drawn.
Warrants: the assumptions, the general principles, the conventions of specific disciplines, widely held values, commonly accepted beliefs, or appeals to human motives that are an important part of any argument.
Pathos: An appeal to the emotions of the target audience may gain their sympathy and assent. TV commercials asking viewers to sponsor a third world child rely heavily on emotional appeals.
Good Reasons: A philosophy that teaches that through a pluralistic process of full exchange, opposing parties can come to a sharing and tolerance of each other's views.
Statistics: facts expressed in quantifiable form such as numbers, charts, or graphs that can lend support to a claim or warrant but that are not irrefutable proof. Although these can be manipulated to misrepresent the facts, they are usually quite convincing.
Red herrings: Writers use this when they distract an audience's attention from the main point. This technique is often pointed out as a fallacy.
Assumption: a step in the process of argument which writers hope (or assume) their target audiences will take for granted as true or logical. If this is warranted, justified, or proven to be true, the argument will be recognized as sound. However, if writers miscalculate their audience's acceptance of the ____, that is, if the audience judges it as unwarranted, untrue, or based purely on opinion, the argument will be built on a weak foundation and may fail.
Argument: using cause and effect makes claims about real, or potential, consequences of an action or proposal.
Testimony: (also, citation) is using the words or ideas of an expert to give an argument greater credibility. Doubt can be cast on this by showing equally qualified experts disagree. Or the expert's credentials or qualifications can be questioned.
Amplification: means saying much about one thing. Writers may intentionally develop a point in many ways so that it can be shown in different lights or emphasized.
Rhetorical question: a question not meant to be answered but to be pondered. This will be ineffective if it can be answered with a simple yes or no. Feminist abolitionist Sojourner Truth is known for hers, "Ain't I a woman?"
Paradox: means a seeming contradiction but one which does contain some truth, such as "so close and yet so far" or "a youthful octogenarian." This is usually used to show the complexity of an idea, to make a point, or for poetic effect.
Common ground: the point at which groups in general disagreement can agree. Writers use the technique of starting from this if their target audience is likely to oppose their claim or reject their arguments.
Alliteration: is the repetition of initial consonants for emphasis or poetic effect.
Irony: means stating the opposite of what is really meant. An ______ tone may be funny or shocking. Writers must have a good idea of whether the target audience will understand this technique. For example, a parent who claims he or she wants to keep his or her children in ignorance and darkness is using this technique if he or she actually means to point out the value of education.
Fallacy: the use of faulty logic or poor arguments.
Tone: As a stylistic technique, this can be effective in imparting emotion. It is the predominant character of a prose style, how writers sound to an audience: arrogant, silly, serious, authoritative, celebratory, sarcastic, worried, etc. A writer's tone is achieved by using persuasive techniques, by word choice, and by other means.
Enthymeme: uses an unstated premise. The effectiveness of the _____________ depends upon the acceptance of the premise being drawn not from certainties, as with the syllogism, but from the beliefs and presuppositions of the audience.
Arrangement: deals with how the parts of an essay are ordered. Points of emphasis, for example, include both the beginnings or ends of paragraphs and the introduction or conclusion to the whole essay. This should be considered in light of the audience and purpose of the paper. For example, writers who want to make a strong argument against an opponent may move the refutation section of an essay to the beginning or end, but they will not bury it in the middle.
Slippery slope: assumes that if one action is taken, it will lead to inevitable and inexorable consequences. For example, if one Aggie sits down during a football game, soon everyone will; then all our traditions will be ruined. Often considered a fallacy, this can easily be refuted by invoking other consequences.
Straw man: Writers using this will claim their opponents hold a position they do not in fact hold, and then attack that position. It is mainly a diversionary tactic. This is considered a fallacy.
Evidence: Writers use (support) to back up assertions or claims to persuade an audience to accept their argument as being grounded. _________ takes many forms, including testimony, appeal to experts, facts, statistics, logic, and scientific data.
Loaded diction: (slanted language) means using biased or prejudiced word choices that predispose a reader to one position. Though it may be under suspect to reasonable audience members, this may also be an effective way to sway an audience.
Assertion: Same as Claim: is a statement that something is, or is not, so.

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