MCAS Bio

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ATP: molecule that stores the useable energy created during cellular respiration
atom: particle made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons
compound: the chemical combination of 2 or more elements in specific amounts
metabolism: all of the chemical reactions that build or break down materials within an organism
axon: long fiber that carries electrical impulses away from the nerve cell body
organelle: a specialized cell structure that performs a specific job within a cell
carbon dioxide: gas that is a reactant of photosynthesis and a waste product of cellular respiration
antibody: specialized protein made by the body to fight off future infections from a disease-causing organism
transcription: copying the code from DNA onto mRNA
codon: three mRNA nucleotides that code for a specific amino acid
translation: process by which a ribosome uses the code on mRNA to make proteins
nucleotide: building block of a nucleic acid (DNA and RNA)
chromatin: DNA that is coiled around proteins
amino acid: building block of a protein
mRNA: messenger RNA; type of RNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome
polypeptide: synonym for protein; chain of amino acids
replication: process in which DNA is duplicated
rRNA: ribosomal RNA; type of RNA that makes up part of the ribosome
mutation: a change or error in the DNA sequence
tRNA: transfer RNA; type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome
cell division: division of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells
centriole: structure that helps to form the spindle
spindle: microtubule structure that separates chromosomes during mitosis
cell cycle: cell grows, prepares to divide, then divides to start growth process again; interphase + M phase
telophase: last phase of mitosis, chromosome are in two new cells and nuclear membranes start to reform
interphase: cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases
mitosis: division of the nucleus or chromosomes
metaphase: phase of mitosis in which chromosomes line up in the center of the cell
prophase: first phase of mitosis in which chromosomes become visible and nuclear membraine disappears
cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm (cytosol and organelles)
anaphase: phase of mitosis in which sister chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of the cell
cancer: uncontrolled cell division
G1 phase: stage of interphase in which cell grows and performs its normal functions
S phase: stage of interphase in which DNA is replicated
G2 phase: stage of interphase in which cell duplicates its cytosol and organelles
gamete: sex cell, sperm or egg
meiosis: type of cell division that creates gametes; cell divides twice to create four cells that are genetically unique
crossing-over: process by which homologous chromosomes exchange pieces, resulting in greater genetic variety
plasma membrane: thin flexible barrier that regulates what enters and exits the cell; composed of two layers of lipids
nuclear envelope: membrane surrounding the nucleus
nucleus: contains the DNA and controls all of the cell's acitivities
nucleolus: helps to assemble ribosomes
cytoplasm: material between the cell membrane and the nucleus
mitochondrion: breaks down food to make ATP
endoplasmic reticulum: internal transport system of the cell, modifies proteins, and synthesizes lipids
Golgi apparatus: stack of membranes that modify proteins and creates "packages" to send them to other locations
lysosome: filled with enzymes to breakdown dead cell parts and foreign objects; only found in animal cells
ribosome: synthesizes proteins
vacuole: stores water and nutrients for the cell; very large in plant cells
cell wall: provides structure and support around cell membrane of plants, fungi, and some bacteria
chloroplast: uses sunlight to make carbohydrates in plants, some bacteria and protists
centriole: organize the spindle fibers to separate chromosomes during animal cell mitosis
cytoskeleton: network of proteins in the cytoplasm that help cell maintain its shape
cilium: hairlike projections that help some cells move
flagellum: whiplike structure some cells use for propulsion
pseudopod: projection of cytoplasm that some protists use for movement and feeding
prokaryote: cell without a nucleus, it contains a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes; bacteria
eukaryote: cell with a nucleus and membrane bound organelles; animals, plants, protists, fungi
gene: section of DNA that codes for a protein and determines a trait
trait: specific characteristic that varies from one individual to another
allele: form of a gene
dominant: trait that will show up in an organism's phenotype if gene is present
recessive: trait that will only appear in the phenotype if organism inherits two of them; covered up by the dominant gene
segregation: separation of alleles during meiosis or gamete formation
gamete: sex cell; sperm or egg
hybrid: offspring of a cross between parents with different traits; heterozygous
true-breeding: inherited two identical alleles for a trait; homozygous or purebred
probability: likelihood an event will occur
phenotype: physical characteristics of an organism
Punnett square: diagram that shows the possible results of a genetic cross; parents' gametes on top and left, offsprings' genotypes inside
genotype: genetic makeup of an organism
homozygous: has two identical alleles for a particular trait; true-breeding or purebred, ex. PP or pp
heterozygous: has two different alleles for a particular trait; hybrid, ex. Pp
independent assortment: principle that genes do not influence each other's inheritance because they are separated independently during meiosis
multiple alleles: three or more alleles exist for a particular trait
incomplete dominance: creates a blended phenotype; one allele is not completely dominant over the other
polygenic trait: trait controlled by two or more genes; shows a wide variety of phenotypes
codominance: both genes contribute to the phenotype of the organism, ex. spotted or striped
nondisjunction: error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes don't separate; gametes end up with wrong number of chromosomes
sex-linked trait: trait related to a gene that is found on the X or Y chromosomes
evolution: change over time; process by which modern organisms descended from ancient organisms
theory: well-tested, well-supported explanation that unifies a broad range of observations
fossil: preserved remains of an ancient organism
natural variation: differences among individuals of a species; results from mutation and sexual reproduction
struggle for existence: competition between organisms for food and space
fitness: ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment
adaptation: inherited characteristic that increases an organism's chance of survival
survival of the fittest: individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully; natural selection
natural selection: individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully; survival of the fittest
common descent: principle that all living things have a common ancestor
homologous structure: structures that have different mature forms but develop from the same embryonic tissues
vestigial organ: organ so reduced in size, it does not serve an important function; may be homologous to structures in other organisms
gene pool: combined genetic information of of all the members of a population
allele frequency: how often a form of a gene appears in a gene pool
species: two organisms that are so similar they can interbreed in nature and produce fertile offspring
speciation: formation of a new species as a result of reproductive isolation
reproductive isolation: separation of species that prevents them from interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
behavioral isolation: type of reproductive isolation in which two organisms have different mating rituals that prevent them from interbreeding
geographic isolation: type of reproductive isolation in which two populations are separated by geographic barries like mountains or bodies of water
temporal isolation: type of reproductive isolation in which two organisms reproduce at different times
biodiversity: variety of organisms that exist in the biosphere
taxonomy: classification of organisms
binomial nomenclature: two part scientfic name for an organism; its genus is listed first, followed by its species
genus: first part of an organism's scientific name
kingdom: second largest taxonomic group; there are six - animalia, plantae, protista, eubacteria, archaebacteria, fungi
domain: most inclusive taxonomic group, larger than kingdom; three exist - bacteria, archaea, eukaryota
Protista: a single celled plant or animal, ex. amoeba, paramecia, euglena
molecular clock: model that uses DNA comparisons to estimate how long two organisms evolved from a common ancestor
phylogenetic tree: diagram showing evolutionary relationships of organisms with a common ancestor; resembles a tree
cladogram: diagram that shows the evolutionary relationships among organisms based on derived characters; resembles a timeline
divergent evolution: pattern of evolution in which two species become more and more dissimilar
Fungi: kingdom of hetertrophs that obtain nutrients through absorption, ex. mushrooms, yeasts
Eukaryota: domain of organisms that contain nuclei, includes animals, plants, fungi, and protists
ecology: study of interactions between organisms and their environment
ecosystem: all the organisms in a particular location, including their non-living environment
species: two organisms that are so similar they can interbreed in nature and produce fertile offspring
population: members of a species in a defined area
biosphere: part of Earth that living organisms inhabit
community: populations of different organisms living in a defined area
autotroph: organism that makes its own food using sunlight or chemicals; producer
producer: organism that makes its own food using sunlight or chemicals; autotroph
photosynthesis: using sunlight and carbon dioxide to make food (carbohydrates)
chemosynthesis: using inorganic chemicals to make food (carbohydrates)
heterotroph: organism that relies on other organisms for food; consumer
consumer: organism that relies on other organisms for food; heterotroph
herbivore: consumer that eats plants
carnivore: consumer that eats animals or meat
omnivore: consumer that eats both plants and animals
decomposer: organism that breaks down and absorbs nutrients from dead organisms
detritivore: organism that feeds on animal and plant remains that it did not capture; scavenger
food chain: series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten
food web: network of all the food chains in an ecosystem
trophic level: step in a food chain, food web, or ecological pyramid
energy pyramid: diagram that shows the energy available to each trophic level in an ecosystem; 10% is passed on to upper levels, the rest is lost as heat
biogeochemical cycle: process in which nutrients are recycled through the biosphere, ex. carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous
evaporation: process by which liquid water turns into a gas (water vapor) when heated
transpiration: evaporation of water from plant leaves
nutrient: chemical that an organism needs to live
nitrogen fixation: process in which bacteria convert nitrogen gas into nitrogen compounds plants can use to make proteins
denitrification: conversion of nitrates in the soil by bacteria into nitrogen gas
greenhouse effect: heat reatined by the the gases of the Earth's atmosphere to maintain the Earth's temperature range
biotic factor: living factors or organisms that affect an ecosystem
abiotic factor: non-living factor that affects an ecosystem
habitat: where an organism lives
resource: anything that an organism needs to live, ex. food, water, space
predation: interaction in which one organism hunts, captures, and feeds on another organism
symbiosis: relationship in which two species live closely together
mutualism: symbiotic relationship in which both organisms benefit
commensalism: symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is not affected
parasitism: symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is harmed
population density: number of individuals per unit area
immigration: individuals joining a population
emigration: individuals leaving a population
carrying capacity: largest number of individuals of a population that the environment can support
invasive (non-native) species: plants and animals that have migrated to areas where they did not originate; often displace native species by outcompeting them for resources
biodiversity: the variety of all living things in the biosphere
cellular respiration: process that breaks down food to make ATP and release carbon dioxide as waste
chemical bond: link formed by two electrons that binds atoms together; where the energy in a compound is stored
pH scale: measurement system used to indicate how acidic or basic a substance is; measures the concentration of H+ ions
acid: compound that release H+ ions in solution; pH less than 7
base: compound that releases OH- ions in solution; pH greater than 7
monomer: building block or small unit of a polymer; can be linked into chains
polymer: large molecule made up of smaller building blocks or monomers
carbohydrate: contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; main source of energy for body, commonly end in "ose"
monosaccharide: building block of a carbohydrate; simple sugar
polysaccharide: large carbohydrate made up of monosaccharides, ex. starch and glycogen
lipid: huge molecule that contains carbon, hydrogen, and a little oxygen; includes fats, oils, and waxes
fatty acid: with glycerol, make up the building blocks of lipids
glycerol: with fatty acids, make up the building blocks of lipids
RNA: single stranded nucleic acid used for protein synthesis
DNA: double stranded nucleic acid that stores and transmits genetic information
protein: contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; makes up cell/body structures and enzymes
nucleotide: building block or monomer of a nucleic acid; commonly recognized by its nitrogen bases as A, T, C, or G
amino acid: building block or monomer of a protein
nucleic acid: contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorous; involved in protein synthesis
chemical reaction: process that changes one set of chemicals into another set of chemicals
reactant: chemical that enters a chemical reaction
product: chemical that results from a chemical reaction
activation energy: energy needed to start a reaction
catalyst: substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction
enzyme: specialized protein that speeds up a chemical reaction by decreasing activation energy; typically end in "ase"
substrate: reactant in a chemical reaction that happens in a living thing
denaturation: when an enzyme changes shape and no longer functions due to high temperatures or wrong pH
organic compound: compound that contains carbon bonded to hydrogen and is found in living things
starch: polysaccharide made up of a chain of glucose molecules; food storage molecule for plants
glycogen: compound used by animals to store carbohydrates in the liver and skeletal muscles
glucose: simple sugar that is used to make ATP through cellular respiration
cellulose: polysaccharide that is the main component of plant
hemoglobin: specialized protein that carries oxygen on red blood cells
insulin: protein hormone that helps to decrease blood sugar
cholesterol: specialized lipid that is used in cell membranes and making hormones
digestive system: body system the breaks down food and absorbs nutrients
pharynx: the throat; last place food and air mix
esophagus: muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach
stomach: muscular sac that churns food and secretes hydrochloric acid to start breaking down proteins
small intestine: organ that completes the chemical digestion of food and absorbs the nutrients
large intestine: organ that absorbs water from undigested material
chemical digestion: the digestion process in which enzymes are used to break foods into their smaller chemical buiding blocks
mechanical digestion: the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces
rectum: the lower part of the large intestine where feces are stored
circulatory system: body system consisting of the heart and blood vessels that circulate blood through the body
atria: two upper chambers of the heart pump blood into the ventricles
ventricles: two lower, muscular chambers of the heart which pump blood to the lungs and the rest of the body
artery: thick-walled muscular blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart
vein: blood vessel that carries blood toward the heart when pumped by skeletal muscles
capillary: tiny, thin-walled blood vessel where substances (gases and nutrients) are exchanged between the blood and the body cells
red blood cells: blood cells containing hemoglobin that carry oxygen through the bloodstream
kidneys: organs that filter nitrogen wastes from blood to make urine
liver: organ that makes bile to break down fats; also filters poisons and drugs out of the blood
excretion: elimination of wastes from the body (urine, carbon dioxide, sweat)
respiratory system: system responsible for taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide using the lungs
larynx: voice box; passageway for air moving from pharynx to trachea; contains vocal cords
trachea: windpipe; airway connecting the pharynx to the bronchi
alveoli: thin-walled microscopic air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place
spinal cord: cord of nerve tissue that conducts messages between the brain and the peripheral nerves
sensory neurons: neurons that carry sensory information from receptors to the central nervous system
motor neurons: neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands
neuron: nerve cell; conducts electrical signals
skeletal muscle: voluntary, striated, multi-nucleate muscle that moves bones
smooth muscle: involuntary muscle found in internal organs
cardiac muscle: type of muscle found in the heart which generates its own electrical signal to contract
cartilage: tough, flexible tissue that covers the ends of bones and decreases friction
ligament: band of connective tissue that holds the bones together
tendon: a band of fibrous tissue that connects muscle to bone
bone marrow: soft tissue found in the center of bone that produces blood cells
endocrine system: collection of glands that secrete hormones into the blood which regulate growth, development, and homeostasis
hormone: chemical messengers secreted by glands into the blood
gland: an organ that secretes hormones into the bloodstream
nervous system: consists of brain, spinal cord, and nerves and regulates the body's responses to internal and external stimuli
homeostasis: the process by which organisms keep their internal environment relatively stable
negative feedback loop: an opposite action to what is occurring in the body to regain homeostasis, ex. if body temperature rises too high, body tries to lower it
pulmonary circulation: circulation from the right side of the heart to the lungs and back to the left side of the heart
systemic circulation: circulation of oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart to the body and back to the right side of the heart
diffusion: movement of molecules across a membrane from high to low concentration without energy
concentration gradient: difference in concentration of a substance on two sides of a membrane
osmosis: movement of water across a membrane from high to low concentration without energy
semi-permeable: characteristic of a cell membrane which allows some molecules to pass through but not others
impermeable: molecules are not able to pass through the membrane
facilitated diffusion: movement of molecules through protein channels in the membrane from high to low concentration
active transport: movement of molecules through protein channels in the membrane from low to high concentration requiring energy (ATP)
passive transport: movement of molecules across a membrane from high to low concentration without energy, ex. diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion
polygenic: this trait is a distinguishing characteristic or quality for which the phenotype (appearance) depends on alleles in multiple genes

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