AP Psychology Review

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A comprehensive review of terminology for AP Psychology. Definitions are for triggering other information. (Pulled from other lists.)

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cognitive dissonance theory: this says that we will suffer discomfort and act to change the situation when our thoughts and actions seem to be inconsistent
TAT: a projective test in which subjects look at and tell a story about ambiguous pictures
representativeness heuristic: this cognitive short cut enables one to generalization based on how closely a stimulus matches a typical member of a class; given a picture of a man in a tweed jacket with a textbook, is this man a professor or a truck driver?
sensory neurons: nervous system cells that receive information from the environment
identity vs. role confusion: Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves
correlation coefficient: a positive one near 1.0 indicates two variable are positively related; a negative number indicates a negative relationship; zero indicates no relationship
collectivist: this adjective describes cultures in which the individual is less important than the group
need for achievement: desire for accomplishment, mastery of people, ideas, things, desire for reaching a high standard
endorphins: neurotransmitters that give one a feeling of well-being, euphoria or eliminate pain
mode: the most commonly occurring term in a batch of data
dyslexia: a learning disability that results in difficulty reading and writing
NREM: refers to sleep during which there is no rapid eye movement
extinction: in classical conditioning, the process of eliminating the previously acquired association of the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response
experiment: form of scientific investigation in which one variable is tested to determine its effect on another
evolutionary: perspective that stresses the value of behavior in Darwinian terms
plasticity: the ability of the brain to adapt to damage by reorganizing functions
individualist: culture in which the individual is valued more highly than the group
action potential: the electrical process by which information is transmitted the length of an axon
preconscious: in Freud's theory, the level of consciousness in which thoughts and feelings are not conscious but are readily retrieveable to consciousness
pituitary: gland that is the master gland of the endocrine system
amygdala: limbic system component associated with emotion, particularly fear and anger
bipolar cells: eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells
general adaptation syndrome: Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion
object permanence: recognition that things continue to exist even though hidden from sight; infants generally gain this after 3 to 7 months of age
informed consent: agreement to participate in psychology research, after being appraised of the dangers and benefits of the research
sympathetic: part of the nervous system that controls the "flight or fight" response
paranoid: a type of schizophrenia characterized by prominent delusions that are persecutory or grandiose
endocrine system: the slow messenger system of the body; produces hormones that affect many bodily functions
permissive: describes a parenting style that is characterized by the parent making few demands on the child
projective: term describes a personality test in which ambiguous stimuli trigger revelation of inner feelings, thoughts
activation synthesis: the idea that dreams are the result of the cerebral cortex interpreting and organizing random flashes of brain activity, originating in the lower brain structures, especially the pons
self-concept: one's idea and evaluation of oneself; this contributes to one's sense of identity
social facilitation: a phenomenon in which we perform simple or well-learned tasks better when in the presence of others
short-term: type of memory that holds a few items briefly before they are lost
retrieval: the process of recovering information stored in memory
socio-cultural: a perspective on psychology that emphasizes effects on behavior and thinking of one's culture and the people around one
fluid: term describes a type of intelligence used to cope with novel situations and problems
chaining: using operant conditioning to teach a complex response by linking together less complex skills
big 5 personality factors: openness to new experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
normal distribution: describes a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that shows the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes
corpus callosum: the fibers that connect the right and left hemispheres, enabling them to communicate
imprinting: evidence of critical period in some animals; they follow the first moving thing they see after hatching
Cannon-Baird: theory of emotion that says that a stimulus causes simultaneously psyiological arousal and the subjective experience of an emotion
interneurons: cells in the spinal cord through which reflexes travel without going to the brain
defense mechanisms: Freud's processes by which individuals express uncomfortable emotions in disguised ways
attachment: theory developed by Harlow; types include secure and insecure
formal operations: One of Piaget's stages; includes the ability to use abstract thinking
sexual response: its four stages are excitement, plateau, orgasm and resolution
drive reduction: theory that claims that behavior is driven by a desire to lessen drives resulting from needs that disrupt homeostasis
conduction: one type of hearing impairment caused by mechanical problems in the ear structures
cognitive: perspective on psychology that stresses the importance of mental activities associated with thinking, remembering, etc
functionalism: William James's school of thought that stressed the adaptive and survival value of behaviors
denial: a defense mechanism in which unpleasant thought or desires are ignored or excluded from consciousness
neurotransmitter: a chemical that is released by a neuron for the purpose of carrying information across the gaps (synapses) between neurons
bystander effect: the tendency to not offer help when needed if others are present who do not offer help
affective disorders: psychological disturbances of mood
crystallized: term describes a type of intelligence which applies cultural knowledge to solving problems
circadian rhythm: the daily biological rhythms that occur in a 24-hour period
attitude: a relatively enduring evaluation of a person or thing; Asch demonstrated that this doesn't always match one's behavior
learned helplessness: lack of motivation to avoid unpleasant stimuli after one has failed before to escape similar stimuli
delta waves: largest brain waves, associated with deep, dreamless sleep
concrete operations: Piaget's stage in which children learn such concepts as conservation and mathematical transformations; about 7 - 11 years of age
neuroscience: perspective on psychology that emphasizes the study of the brain and its effects on behavior
hippocampus: limbic system component associated with memory
applied research: scientific investigations intended to solve practical problems
difference threshold: also called the jnd; smallest distinction between two stimuli that can consistently be detected
Rorschach test: a projective test that uses inkblots as the ambiguous stimulus
shaping: an operant conditioning technique in which reinforces guide behavior to closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
self-efficacy: one's ability to act effectively to bring about desired results; from Bandura
hallucinogen: a substance capable of producing a sensory effect in the absence of real external sensory stimuli
hindsight bias: the tendency, after an event occurs, to overestimate the likelihood that an event could have been predicted
false consensus: a belief that others share the same opinion about something, when actually most don't
incentive: an external stimulus that tends to encourage behavior
binocular cues: retinal disparity and convergence which enable people to determine depth using both eyes
hierarchy of needs: Maslow's theory of the most important motivations people have
Central Nervous System: consists of the brain and the spinal cord
narcolepsy: a disorder characterized by sudden sleep attacks, often at inopportune times
frequency: theory of hearing which states that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the tone's frequency
operational definition: a description of an experimental variable in such a way that the variable can be measured and the procedure can be replicated
personality: a consistent pattern of thinking, acting, feeling
dissociative identity disorder: also called multiple personality disorder
hunger: it is regulated by the lateral hypothalamus and the ventromedial hypothalamus
Electra complex: counterpart to the Oedipus complex for females
dreams: occur most often during REM sleep; may be caused by activation-synthesis, or may be a way of cementing memories
independent: type of variable manipulated by the experimenter
spontaneous recovery: in classical conditioning the re-occurence of conditioning after it had appeared to be extinct
phallic: name for Freud's stage which features the Oedipus stage
latent learning: a change in behavior due to experience acquired without conscious effort, s, for example, a student using a quote in an exam essay that the student had never tried to memorize, though had encountered it in studying
antagonist: drug which blocks the activity of neurotransmitters
consummate love: includes passion, intimacy and commitment
repression: defense mechanism in which painful memories are excluded from consciousness
motivation: a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
positive psychology: field of study which concentrates on good psychological traits such as contentment and joy; it also studies character traits such as wisdom, integrity and altruism
psychoanalysis: Freud's therapeutic technique
absolute threshold: intensity level at which one can detect a stimulus 50% of the time
self-esteem: the more positive one's estimation of one's qualities and characteristics, the higher this is
genital stage: Freud's stage of psychosexual development when adult sexuality is prominent
median: the middle one of a set of numbers
optic nerve: the axons of the ganglion cells form this
reaction formation: defense mechanism in which unacceptable impulses are transformed into their opposite
random: term that describes assignment in which all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to the control group or to the experimental group
introversion: a personality trait that signifies that one finds energy from internal sources rather than external ones
occipital: this lobe contains the primary vision processing function
hemispheres: we have two, right and left, and some brain functions seem to centered in one or the other
axon: extension of the neuron which carries, via an action potential, information that will be sent on to other neurons, muscles or glands
outgroup: generally, any group that one does not belong to
feature detection: the ability of the brain to identify specific components of visual stimuli such as corners or edges
groupthink: tendency for group members to think alike with certainty of correctness, biased perceptions of outgroup members, and generally defective decision-making processes
IQ: the average is 100; there are many definitions of this attribute, including multiple and crystallized
parietal: lobe that contains the sensory cortex
glial cell: this acts as a support system for neurons
double blind: this term describes an experiment in which neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows whether a subject is a member of the experimental group or the control group
phoneme: in language, smallest distinctive sound unit
theory: this organizes data and is used to make predictions
projection: defense mechanism in which one disguises one's won unacceptable impulses by attributing them to others
higher-order: term describes conditioning in which the CS for one experiment becomes the UCS in another experiment so that another neutral stimulus can be made to elicit the original UCR
acquisition: a process in classical conditioning by which the association of a neutral stimulus with a natural stimulus is first established
deindividuation: when an individual seems to lose himself or herself in the group's identity
adrenal gland: source of the hormone norepinephrine which affects arousal
iconic: term that describes the memory of images
schizophrenia: disorder characterized by hallucinations and delusions
norm: an understood rule for social behavior
availability heuristic: this cognitive shortcut features the idea that events which are vividly in memory seem to be more common
lucid: describes a dream in which the dreamer is aware that he or she is dreaming and is able to influence the progress of the dream narrative
placebo effect: phenomenon that some people get better even though they receive not medication but an inert substance which should have no medical effect
alcohol: the most frequently used and abused CNS depressant in most cultures; its use affects mood, judgment, cognition
rationalization: "The only reason I flunked the test is because our teacher is no good."
catharsis: release of aggressive energy through activity or fantasy
lithium: in psychopharmacology, this is used to control bipolar symptoms
obsessive-compulsive disorder: an anxiety disorder characterized by repetitive obsessions and compulsions
longitudinal: describes research that measures a trait in a particular group of subjects over a long period of time
fundamental attribution error: tendency to attribute others' behavior to their dispositions and our own behaviors to our situations
bulimia: eating disorder characterized by excessive eating followed by purging
omission training: a procedure in which reinforcement occurs when a specific behavior does not occur in a fixed period of time
discrimination: treating members of different races, religions, ethnic groups differently; usually associated with prejudice
internal locus of control: people with this tned to respond to internal states and desires; they tend to see their successes as the result of their own efforts
unconditioned stimulus: in conditioning it elicits the UCR
instinct: a complex pattern of behavior that is fixed across a species
convergent thinking: a type of critical thinking in which one evaluates existing possible solutions to a problem to choose the best one
external locus of control: this term describes what you have if your behaviors are driven mainly by outside forces
interposition: monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away
eidetic: describes a type of visual memory that is retained for a long time; photographic
safety: the second rung of Maslow's hierarchy; refers to need for freedom from danger
latent: Freud's stage of psychosexual development occuring from about age 6 to puberty during which little happens in psychosexual terms
echoic: term that describes memory of sounds
reticular formation: a network of cells in the brainstem that filters sensory information and is involved in arousal and alertness
clinical: this type of psychologist studies, assesses and treats those with psychological disorders
temporal: the lobe that controls audition
Parkinson's disease: this ailment, whose symptoms includes tremors and later difficulty walking, is caused by inability to produce dopamine
superego: the part of the personality in Freud's theory that is responsible for making moral choices
representative: this kind of sample accurately reproduces the characteristics of the population a researcher is studying
reciprocal determinism: Bandura's idea that though our environment affects us, we also affect our environment
anorexia (nervosa): an eating disorder in which one starves oneself even though significantly underweight
mania: high state of arousal, often accompanied by poor judgment
emotion theories: James-Lange, Cannon-Baird and Singer-Schachter are three
kinethesis: sense of balance and of one's physical position
mental age: developed by Binet; equal to one's chronological age times the percentage score on an IQ test
CAT scan: a method of creating static images of the brain through computerized axial tomography
anvil: the middle of the three ossicles
night terrors: also called sleep terror disorder, these include the characteristic of waking abruptly in a state of panic, usually in children, less often in adults
pons: part of the brain, works with the cerebellum in coordinating voluntary movement; neural stimulation studied in activation synthesis theory may originate here
social exchange: a theory that suggests that our behavior is based on maximizing benefits and minimizing costs
social learning: a theory that suggests we learn social behaviors by watching and imitating others
scapegoat: this theory says that having suffered negative experience, an individual might blame an innocent person or group for the experience and subsequently mistreat the person or group
selective attention: this term describes the situation when you are focused on certain stimuli in the environment while other stimuli are excluded
metacognition: thinking about thinking
auditory canal: the area that sound waves pass through to reach the eardrum
reinforcer: in operant conditioning any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
preoperational: Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, when egocentrism declines
egocentrism: in a toddler, the belief that others perceive the world in the same way that he or she does
PTSD: initials representing a disorder in which one relives painfully stressful events
sleep spindles: short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep
color blindness: a variety of disorders marked by inability to distinguish some or all colors
autonomic nervous system: division of the nervous system that control the glands and organs; its divisions arouse or calm
catatonic: a form of schizophrenia in which the patient has muscle immobility and does not move
lens: a curved, transparent element of the vision system that provides focus
functional fixedness: the tendency to think about things only in terms of their usual uses; can be a hindrance to creative thinking
correlation: the degree of relationship between two variables
retrograde amnesia: loss of memory for events that occurred before the onset of amnesia; eg a soldier's forgetting events immediately before a shell burst nearby, injuring him
synaptic gap: space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the receptors of the next neuron
monocular: terms that means "one eyed", used to indicate the sort of of environmental cues to depth perception that only require one eye, for example, interposition
memory: functions associated with this include encoding, storage and retrieval
psychodynamic: term describes the perspective on psychology in which inner feeling and unconscious tensions are emphasized
self-actualization: the highest of Malow's needs; "the full use of talent"
thalamus: the sensory switchboard
placebo: an inert substance given to the control group in an experiment
neutral: describes a stimulus in classical conditioning that would normally not elicit the response intended, such as the tone in Pavlov's experiments before it was associated with the food
embryo: early stage of human development, when cells have begun to differentiate
all-or-nothing: description of the action of neurons when firing
retroactive interference: when new learning disrupts the recall of previously-learned information
intimacy vs isolation: Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families
dissociative identity disorder: previously called multiple personality disorder; disorder where personality is segmented into 3+ identities; often controversial; often accompanied by sever trauma at a young age
Oedipus complex: in Freud's theory, the conflict which results in a boy gaining a superego and beginning to emulate his father
schema: a collection of basic knowledge about a category of information; serves as a means of organization and interpretation of that information
mere exposure effect: this phenomenon causes one to prefer a stimulus as a consequence of repeated exposures to that stimulus, particularly is there is no adverse result of the exposure
consciousness: one's awareness of one's environment and oneself.
MMPI: the initials of a long, detailed personality inventory; Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
obesity: condition of having excess body fat resulting in being greatly overweight
electroconvulsive therapy: a treatment in which low level electric current is passed through the brain
conditioning: generally, learning in which certain experiences make certain behaviors more or less likely; there are two forms of this
behavioral: perspective on psychology that sees psychology as an objective science without reference to mental states
sublimation: a defense mechanism in which unacceptable energies are directed into socially admirable outlets, such as art
neural network: refers to interconnected neuron cells
James-Lange: theory of emotion in which physiological arousal precedes the emotion
SSRI: class of drugs used to relieve anxiety by limiting reuptake of a neurotransmitter
prejudice: a negative attitude formed toward an individual or group without sufficient experience with the person or group
Intelligence: the ability to learn from experience, to use information, to understand things
extrinsic: term that describes motivations that drive behavior in order to gain rewards from outside forces
bipolar disorder: mood disorder in one experiences both manic and depressed episodes
artificial intelligence: a subdiscipline of computer science that attempts to simulate human thinking
long term potentiation: a possible source of the formation of memories; improvement in a neuron's ability to transmit caused by repeated stimulations
inferiority complex: Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences
role-play: technique in therapy and training in which participants act out new behaviors or skills
hypochondriasis: a disorder characterized by an unreasonable fear that one has a serious disease
person-centered: therapy developed by Rogers featuring the patient's self-discovery and actualization; also called client-centered
phobia: fear
integrity vs despair: Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives
split brain: a condition in which the two brain hemispheres are isolated by cutting the corpus callosum
population: all of the individuals from which subjects for an experiment may be drawn
dependent variable: the variable that the experimenter measures at the end of the experiment
rods: responsible for black and white vision
rooting: a reflex in which a newborn turns its head in response to a gentle stimulus on its cheek
place theory: the idea that different sound frequencies stimulate different locations on the basilar membrae
cochlea: this coiled structure in the inner ear is fluid-filled and in it the energy from sound waves stimulate hair cells
reliability: in testing, the characteristic of a test that produces consistent scores through retesting or alternate halves or other methods
after image: an image that remains after a stimulus is removed, especially one in which the colors are reversed
bottom-up processing: analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works its way up to the brain's integration of sensory information
olfactory bulb: the first brain structure to pick up smell information from the nose
morpheme: in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning
confounding variable: extraneous factor that interferes with the action of the independent variable on the dependent variable
schemata: plural form of schema
achievement test: a test that assesses what one has learned
client-centered therapy: developed by Carl Rogers, this humanistic therapy includes unconditional positive regard
accommodation: the process of modifying a schema to account for new information; the process of the eyes lens changing shape in order to focus on distant or near objects
foot-in-the-door: term describes a phenomenon in which people who agree to a small request are more likely to later agree to a larger request
sensorimotor: describes Piaget's stage in which the child explores the world through interaction of his mouth and hands with the environment
twin studies: a common method of investigating whether nature or nurture affects behavior
blind spot: point in the retinal where the optic nerve leaves the retina so there are no rods or cones there
semantics: in language, study of meanings of words
motor neuron: this carries information from the brain to the muscles; also called "efferent"
EEG: electroencephalogram; initials of a method of representation of brain waves; detects electrical activity in brain through electrodes on scalp. Results show as wavy lines.
just world: phenomenon that describes the belief that what happens to people is what they deserve
babbling: stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds
ablation: removal or destruction of brain tissue in a surgical procedure
threshold: in a neuron, reaching this causes the neuron to fire
gestalt: German word for "whole", it refers to our tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete
insanity: a legal term describing one's inability to be responsible for one's action due to the condition of the mind
set point: the point at which one's body tries maintain weight
industry vs. inferiority: Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive
schedules of reinforcement: these include fixed interval and variable ratio
psychiatrist: medical doctor who has specialized in treating psychological disorders
myelin sheath: a layer of fatty tissue encasing a neuron's axon that speeds transmission
grammar: a system of rules in a language
opponent process theory: term used in both vision theory and emotion theory
group polarization: tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group
temperament: personality component that ranges from very calm to very exitable
signal detection: this theory predicts how and in what circumstances we can detect a stimulus; assumes there is no single threshold
dispositional attribution: assuming that another's behavior is due to personality factors, not situational ones
structuralism: school of psychology developed by Wilhelm Wundt
control group: subjects in an experiment who do not receive application of the independent variable but are measured nonetheless for the dependent variable
cerebellum: brain structure that controls well-learned motor activities like riding a bike
REBT: Albert Ellis's form of therapy for psychological disorders
explicit: term that describes memories that can be consciously recalled
long term: refers to memory that is stored effectively in the brain and may be accessed over an extended period of time
regression: defense mechanism in which one retreats to an earlier stage of life
in-group bias: tendency to favor one's own group over other groups
oral stage: Freud's first stage of psychosexual development during which pleasure is centered in the mouth
preconventional: Kohlberg's stage of moral development in which rewards and punishments dominate moral thinking
information processing: humans accomplish this either in parallel (unconsciously) or in serial fashion (consciously)
mnemonic device: method of improving memory by associating new information with previously learned information
serotonin: a neurotransmitter; associated with improved mood and other positive emotions
generativity vs. stagnation: Erikson's stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service
humanist: perspective in psychology that stresses the goodness of people and their possibility of reaching their fullest potential
cones: neurons in the retina that are responsible for color vision
extraversion: one of the Big 5, a personality trait orients one's interests toward the outside world and other people, rather than inward
DSM: initials of the American Psychiatric Association's book that lists diagnostic criteria for many psychological disorders
eardrum: also called the tympanic membrane
divergent thinking: a type of creative thinking in which one generates new solutions to problems
dendrite: a branch off the cell body of a neuron that receives new information from other neurons
conditioned response: in classical conditioning, the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus
peripheral nervous system: the subsystem of the nervous system that does not include the CNS
stereotype: a set of generalizations about a group
debriefing: giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed
flashbulb: term describes a vivid memory of a personally significant and emotional event
gene: made of DNA, it is the basic building block of heredity
fixed interval: describes the schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker receives a paycheck every Friday
ego: the Latin for "I"; in Freud's theories, the mediator between the demands of the id and the superego
belief perseverance: situation in which one's beliefs continue despite the fact that the ground for the beliefs have been discredited
hypothesis: a prediction of how the an experiment will turn out
experimental group: subjects in an experiment to whom the independent variable is administered
autonomy vs. shame and doubt: Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt
insight: in psychoanalysis, the basic understanding one develops of the underlying sources of emotion or behavioral difficulty
sensory adaptation: reduced responsiveness caused by prolonged stimulation
dissociative fugue: disorder in which one travels away from home and is unable to remember details of his past, including often his identity
somatic: a division of the nervous system that controls voluntary muscle movements
dopamine: a neurotransmitter that is associated with Parkinson's disease (too little of it) and schizophrenia (too much of it)
sleep apnea: a disorder characterized by cessation of breathing during sleep
hypnosis: a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain events or emotions will occur
encoding: conversion of sensory information into a form that can be retained as a memory
token economy: a technique in operant conditioning by which desired behaviors receive forms of currency that can be exchanged for rewards
delusion: irrational, highly improbable belief
MRI: a technique that enables us to see static images of the brain's structures; uses magnetism to achieve this effect
motion parallax: a depth cue in which the relative movement of elements in a scene gives depth information when the observer moves relative to the scene
just noticeable difference: the threshold at which one can distinguish two stimuli that are of different intensities, but otherwise identical
ganglion cells: their axons form the optic nerve
displacement: defense mechanism in which unwanted feelings are directed towards a different object
id: in Freud's conception, the repository of the basic urges toward sex and agression
scatterplot: name for a graph of data points in a two variable correlation
panic disorder: characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks
initiative vs guilt: Erikson's third stage in which the child finds independence in planning, playing and other activities
cerebral cortex: the fabric of interconnecting cells that blankets the brain hemispheres; the brain's center for information processing and control
observational learning: change in behavior due to watching other people behave
refractory period: resting time; occurs in both neuron firing and in human sexual response
negative reinforcement: in operant conditioning, removing something unpleasant in order to elicit more of a particular behavior
proactive interference: when prior learning disrupts the recall of new information
serial position effect: this tells us that the best recall of a list of items will be of those at the beginning of the list
cornea: the transparent outer covering of the eye
afferent: in neurons, another name for sensory
acetylcholine (ACh): a neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory and muscle movement
figure-ground: refers to our ability to distinguish foreground from background in visual images
self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief or expectation that helps to make itself true
intrinsic: term that describes motivations that derive from one's interest in the object of the motivation, rather than from rewards that one might gain
neuron: the fundamental building block of the nervous system
fixed ratio: describes a schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker is paid for a certain sum for each product produced
hypothalamus: limbic system component that regulates hunger, body temperature and other functions
insomnia: inability to fall asleep or remain asleep long enough for sufficient rest
chunking: organizing units of information into manageable units such as memorizing a phone number as three groups of information 248-555-1212
diffusion of responsibility: reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect
REM: describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases
oval window: membrane at the enterance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations
aphasia: impairment of language usually caused by damage to the left hemisphere
heuristic: a useful, but unprovable, cognitive shortcut, such as a "rule of thumb"
depressant: any agent that reduces the activity of the CNS
case study: scientific investigation in which a single subject is studied in great detail
parasympathetic: the branch of the nervous system that automatically calms us down when the reason for arousal has passed
fetus: a stage in human development extending from about ten weeks after conception to birth
homeostasis: the steady, stable state that is the body's regulatory processes try to maintain
retina: the sensory reception system of the eye; includes rods and cones
modeling: the process of observing and imitating a behavior
unconditioned response: in conditioning the behavior elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
operant conditioning: a method of influencing behavior by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing undesired ones
psychopharmacology: the study of the effects of drugs on the mind and behavior
fetal alcohol syndrome: sometimes the result in a child of the mother's excessive drinking while pregnant, characterized by low birth weight, facial abnormalities, mental retardation
hallucination: a false sensory perception that seems to be real but for which there is not an actual external stimulus
perception: the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
episodic: describes a type of memory that includes specific events that one has personally experienced
depth perception: an ability that we exercise by using both monocular and binocular cues
lesion: any destruction or damage to brain tissue
collective unconscious: Jung's theory that we all share an inherited memory that contains our culture's most basic elements
deinstitutionalization: moving people with psychological or developmental disabilities from highly structured institutions to home- or community-based settings
cross-sectional: type of study that measures a variable across several age groups at the same time
conformity: adjusting behavior to meet a group's standard
medulla: part of the brain nearest the spinal cord which controls breathing, heart rate and blood pressure
confirmation bias: a tendency to search for information that supports one's preconceptions
motor cortex: an area of the brain, near the rear of the frontal lobes, that controls voluntary movement
attribution theory: a way of explaining others' behavior by either one's disposition or one's situation
self-serving bias: he tendency to assign oneself credit for successes but to blame failures on external forces
fovea: the central focus area of the retina
anal stage: Freud's pychosexual period during which a child learns to control his bodily excretions
syntax: in language the set of rules that describe how words are arranged to make sentences
naturalistic: term refers to observations made of individual's behavior in an everyday life setting
latent content: the hidden or disguised meaning of dreams
marijuana: a drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive
punishment: can be either positive or negative, intended to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
authoritarian: style of parenting in which the parent creates strict rules for the child and the child has little or no input into determining the rules
sensory cortex: the parts of the brain that receive information from the sensory receptors
biological: perspective that stresses links between biology and behavior
alpha waves: seen when an individual is in a relaxed, unfocused, yet still awake state
assimilation: interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schema
standard deviation: a computation of how much scores vary around a mean
law of effect: Thorndike's rule that behaviors which have positive outcomes tend to be repeated
PET scan: method of brain imaging using positron emissions
basic research: scientific investigations intended to expand the knowledge base
manifest: describes, in Freudian terms, the surface content of a dream
brainstem: oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells upon entering the skull; controls fundamental survival processes like heartrate and breathing
arousal: condition in which the sympathetic nervous system is in control
agonists: drugs which mimic the activity of neurotransmitters
somatoform disorder: any of a group of psychological disturbances characterized by physical symptoms for which there is not a medical cause
hormone: chemical substance secreted by endocrine glands that affect body processes
associative learning: learning in which an organism learns that certain events occur together, such as my cat knowing that she will be fed when I get home from work
nature vs nurture: name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior
social norm: a group's determination of socially acceptable behavior
antisocial personality disorder: psychological disorder in which one demonstrates a lack of conscience
classical conditioning: method of learning in which a neutral stimulus can be used to elicit a response that is usually a natural response to a stimulus
cognitive therapy: treatment for psychological disorders that centers on changing self-defeating thinking
need for affiliation: desire to associate with others, to be part of a group, to form close and intimate relationships
mean: numerical average of a set of numbers
rehearsal: conscious repetition of information in order to fix it in memory, such as practicing a list of terms to memorize
concurrent validity: the extent to which two measures of the same trait or ability agree
optic chiasm: the point in the brain where the visual field information from each eye "crosses over" to the appropriate side of the brain for processing
anterograde amnesia: loss of memory for events that occur after the onset of the amnesia; eg, see in a boxer who suffers a severe blow to the head and loses memory for events after the blow
attraction: feeling of being drawn toward another and desiring the company of a person
heritability: the extent to which differences in a group of a characteristic is due to genetics, not environment
association areas: areas of the cerebral cortex which have no specific motor or sensory repsonsibilities, but rather are involved in thinking, memory and judgment

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Number of cards 394