Human Biology Exam 2
Terms
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- Biotechnology
- DNA ---> mRNA ---> Proteins Need to CUT and SPLICE DNA strands.
- Restriction Enzyme
- Cuts DNA at a specific target sequence. - DNA can be inserted into a different DNA strand - new organism now has this gene ---> can make protein. - Bacteria will take up DNA in circular form (plasmid). - Use this to produce large amounts of human proteins (insulin).
- Transgenic Animal
- Transfer of genes from one organism to another; harvest proteins in milk, or blood.
- Gene Therapy
- Replace defective gene with a healthy gene. - Delivery by VIRUSES. - Virus works as a DNA injection system. - Healthy gene inserted into host's DNA.
- Axial Skeleton
- Central; Skull, vertebral column, rib cage.
- Appendicular Skeleton
- Arms & legs; clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius & ulna, carpals, metacarpals & phalanges, pelvic girdle, femur, tibia & fibula, tarsals, metatarsals.
- Clavicle
- Collar Bone
- Collar Bone
- Clavicle
- Scapula
- Shoulder Bone
- Shoulder Bone
- Scapula
- Humerus
- Upper Arm
- Upper Arm
- Humerus
- Radius & Ulna
- Forearm
- Forearm
- Radius & Ulna
- Carpals
- Wrist
- Wrist
- Carpals
- Metacarpals & Phalanges
- Hand
- Hand
- Metacarpals & Phalanges
- Pelvic Girdle
- Hip Bone
- Hip Bone
- Pelvic Girdle
- Femur
- Thigh
- Thigh
- Femur
- Tibia & Fibula
- Lower Leg
- Lower Leg
- Tibia & Fibula
- Tarsals
- Ankle
- Ankle
- Tarsals
- Metatarsals & Phalanges
- Foot
- Foot
- Metatarsals & Phalanges
- Internal Anatomy of Bone:
- Living tissue, spongy bone, compact bone, bone composed of calcium & collagen.
- Living Tissue
- Bone cells; osteocytes
- Spongy Bone
- Full of holes; rich blood supply
- Compact Bone
- More rigid, tightly packed
- Calcium Hardens
- - Ossifies cartilage models. - Continues until the end of puberty (growth plates at the ends of bones harden off/ossify; triggered by testosterone, estrogen).
- 2 Types of Bone Cells
- -Osteoblasts -Osteoclasts
- Osteoblasts
- Bone building cells; remove calcium from blood.
- Osteoclasts
- Bone restoring cells; break down bone and release calcium into blood.
- Calcium Storage
- Balance between body calcium needs and calcium storage.
- Calcitonin
- Stimulates osteoblasts; released with high calcium in the blood; causes calcium storage in bones
- Parathyroid Hormone
- Stimulates osteoclasts; released with low calcium in the blood; cause calcium release from bones.
- Bone Break
- Healed as a series of steps: 1. Blood clot 2. Break area invaded by fibroblasts, produce collagen 3. Cartilage callus 4. Cartilage ossifies, replaced with bone 5. Bump in bone after healing eventually remodels
- Cartilage
- - Made by chondrocytes - Poor blood & nerve supply - 3 types: elastic (flexible), hyaline (frictional), fibrocartilage (in invertebral disks)
- Joints
- - Fibrous - structures of skull. - Cartilaginous - Immovable - Invertebral disks - Synovial - Movable (hinge - knee; ball and socket - hip)
- Ligaments and Tendons
- - Ligaments - connects bone to bone - Tendons - connects muscle to bone
- Synovial Joints
- - Injuries = Sprains - Stretch, partial, or complete tear of ligament. - Direction of impact determines which ligaments are damaged. - Cartilage and synovial fluid helps keep lubricated - Bursa - fluid-filled, cushion
- Bursitis
- Joint Inflammation
- Osteoporosis
- - Decreased bone density - Treated by increasing calcium intake and light exercise
- Osteoarthritis
- Wearing of cartilage
- Rheumatoid Arthritis
- - Autoimmune - Immune system causes inflammation of joints - Cartilage breaks down
- Muscular System
- - Force generation - Heat generation - Protection
- Types of Muscle
- Skeletal, cardiac, smooth
- Skeletal Muscle
- Striated (striped), voluntary, activated by nervous system.
- Cardiac Muscle
- Striated (striped), involuntary, heart muscle.
- Smooth Muscle
- Unstriated, involuntary, of ten TUBES, vessels, digestive tract.
- Locate these muscles:
- - Biceps, triceps - Quadriceps, hamstring - Latissimus, dorsi - Rectus abdominus - Pectoralis major - Deltoid - Gastrocnemius - External oblique
- Origin
- Not moving, stable attachment point of muscle.
- Insertion
- Attachment point of muscle that moves the joint.
- Antagnostic Muscle Pair
- Moves a joint in opposite directions.
- Whole muscle composed of:
- Multiple fascicles (multiple strips). - Muscle fibers/cells - Myofibrils. - Sarcomeres
- Muscular System Prefixes
- Myo- Sarco-
- Muscles get their energy from:
- ATP
- Process of Muscle Movement:
- 1. Myosin head binds (ADP + P) 2. Myosin head tilts (release ADP + P) 3. Myosin releases (ATP binds) 4. Myosin head resets (ATP --> ADP + P)
- Tropomyosin
- Blocks myosin binding sites on actin filament.
- Troponin
- Holds tropomyosin in blocking position, binding site for calcium.
- If Ca++ Available (Actin Filament):
- Binds troponin, shift tropomyosin - uncovers myosin binding sites on actin filament.
- Ca++ Initiates (Actin Filament):
- Contraction - unblocks myosin binding sites.
- Neuromuscular Junction
- Connection between nervous system (neuron) and a muscle fiber. - Neuron releases neurotransmitter molecule (Acetylcholine) into synoptic cleft. - Acetylcholine binds muscle cell and triggers electrical impulse in muscle. - Electrical impulse moves down muscle fiber and dives inward at transverse tubules. - Electrical impulse causes sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium (Ca++).
- Motor Unit
- Motor neuron and all the muscle fibers to which it connects. - Allows us to control strength of a muscle contraction. - Subdivide single muscle into multiple motor units. - Brain chooses from a set of motor units. - Coordination.
- Muscle Contraction Strength
- Force = # of myosin heads bound to actin. Number of heads bound determined by: # of active muscle fibers (motor unit recruitment); available binding sites on actin (calcium release).
- Electrical Firing
- Signal impulse causes a "twitch"; multiple impulses cause "summation"; rapid impulse cause "tetanic contraction".
- Summation
- Increase in muscle contraction strength.
- Tetanic Contraction
- Increases Ca++ concentration to maximal; all myosin heads can bind to actin.
- Stimulation Frequency
- Also determines muscle contraction strength
- Muscle Stimulation
- An electronic instrument that delivers very low amplitude electrical impulses to a muscle; muscles will respond to this electrical impulse by contracting.
- Energy Sources for Muscle Movement
- - Available ATP - Creatine phosphate pathway - Glycogen metabolism - glucose production - new ATP synthesis
- Oxygen Debt
- Cannot keep electron transport system running - produce LACTIC ACID.
- Muscle fiber types:
- - Fast twitch - Slow twitch
- Fast Twitch Muscle Fiber
- Large amounts of force, short time.
- Slow Twitch Muscle Fiber
- Slow, steady amount of force, long period of time.
- Fast Twitch
- - Low endurance - Fewer mitochondria - Less myoglobin (white muscle) - High power
- Slow Twitch
- - High endurance - Many motochondria - More myoglobin (red muscle) - Less power
- Muscle Growth
- Increase ENDURANCE with extended periods of aerobic, low intensity exercise. Increase MUSCLE MASS with short periods of high intensity exercise.
- Sterioids
- - Anabolic = Synthesis = New muscle growth - Derivatives of testosterone - Multiple side effects (masculinization, reproductive changes, emotional changes, cardiovascular changes, cancer)
- The Circulatory System
- - Pump blood - Maintain proper blood pressure & regulate blood flow to different tissues - Deliver gases & nutrients to tissues - Control body temperature
- 2 Types of Valves
- - Atrioventricular Valves - Semilunar Valves
- Atrioventricular Valves
- Between atria and ventricle; prevent backflow into atria.
- Semilunar Valves
- Between ventricle and aorta or pulminary trunk; prevents backflow into ventricle.
- Chordaea Tendinaea
- Support atrioventricular valves, prevent from opening backwards.
- Closure of Valves
- Causes heart sounds (lub dub).
- Lub
- Closure of AV valves.
- Dub
- Closure of semilunar valves.
- Artery
- Carry blood AWAY from heart.
- Vein
- Carry blood BACK TO heart.
- Heart Murmur
- Valve isn't sealed; blood leak.
- Normal Blood Pressure:
- - 120/80 mmHg - 120 = systolic - 80 = diastolic
- Systolic
- Ventricle contracts
- Diastolic
- Ventricle relaxes
- Systole
- Ventricle contracts & empties; AV valves close.
- Diastole
- Ventricle relaxes & fills; semilunar valves close.
- Contraction of Heart
- - Atria contract first - Ventricles contract afterward
- Electrocardiogram
- Pwave; QRS complex; Twave
- SA Node
- - Fires spontaneously; pacemaker. - Responds to demands, changes rate. - Atrium fires first. - Reaches atriventricular node, delays impulse. - Bundle of His - Purkinjie Fibers - Ventricular muscle - Causes heart to squeeze from bottom of ventricle.
- Carotid Artery
- Blood to head
- Jugular Vein
- Blood from head to heart.
- Aorta
- Blood to body.
- Vena Cava
- Blood from body to heart.
- Pulmonary Trunk & Arteries
- Blood to lungs.
- Coronary Artery
- Blood to heart muscle.
- Arteries
- - Thick, smooth muscle. - Used to control where blood flows (diameter changes. vasoconstriction, tighter; vasodilation, open up). - Resist pressure generated by heart (generate back pressure - blood pressure)
- Capillaries
- - One cell thick (endothelial) - Nutrients diffuse out of blood - Good exchange
- Veins
- - Thin walled - Less pressure - 1-way valves - only allow blood to flow towards heart
- Skeletal muscle contractions squeeze veins and force more blood back to:
- Heart
- Fluid loss from capillaries:
- - Little bit of blood pressure will drive fluid out of capillaries. - Just fluid portion of blood - no red cells, yellowish color. (lymph, accumulation causes swelling of tissues - edema).
- Lymphatic System
- - Picks up lymph fluid & returns it to blood stream. - Lymph nodes have high concentrations of white blood cells. - Obstruction causes major swelling.
- Blood Pressure Measurement
- - Only hear tapping when cuff pressure is between systolic & diastolic. - Inflate cuff to 170 mmHg (no sound). - Deflate cuff & listen. First sounds cuff pressure = systolic pressure. Last sounds cuff pressure = diastolic pressure.
- Cardiac Output
- Liters of blood flow/minute. - Know beats/minute - heart rate. - Know volume of blood/beat - stroke volume.
- Coronary Artery Disease
- Atherosclerosis - Cholesterol plaques accumulate, prevent blood flow.
- High Blood Pressure
- Silent disease process; heart must work harder; heart thickens and becomes less elastic.
- Heart Attack
- Death of tissue, poor pumping ability.
- Arrhythmia
- Can occur in young and old. Electrical conduction problem.
- Surgeries
- Coronary artery bypass, balloon angioplasty, heart transplantation, artificial heart.
- Medicines
- Drugs can be used to lower blood pressure and prevent arrhythmias.
- Balloon Angioplasty
- Expand balloon, push plaque against walls, open vessel.
- Coronary Artery Bypass
- Transplant vein from leg into heart, connect from aorta to coronary artery - "bypass".
- Stroke
- Obstruction in arteries feeding brain.
- Organ Transplants
- - Heart, lung, liver, kidney most common. - Must match to patient's blood type/immune system. - Requires lifelong immunosuppression to prevent rejection. - Many more recipients than donors available.
- The Respiratory System
- - Exchange gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) - Balance pH of blood - Communication - Prefix: pulmo-, bronch-
- Nose
- - Filters, humidifies incoming air. - Outgoing air - recovers H2O, condenses H2O
- Pharynx
- - Back of throat - Connects mouth & nose
- Larynx
- - Voice box - vocal cords
- Trachea
- - Rigid, cartilaginous rings (prevent collapse during inhalation)
- Bronchi
- - Carry air to/from lungs (branch off from trachea) - Branch into smaller tubes (bronchioles) - Branch into alveoli (site for gas exchange)
- Epiglottis
- Flap covers/seals trachea.
- Diaphragm
- Contraction, drops and flattens, inhalation (inspiration); relax, pillows upward into chest.
- Intercostals
- - Pull on rib cage - Inspiration: ribs separate, lift. - Expiration: ribs move down, inward.
- Ventilation
- - Movement of air is caused by changing volume of chest cavity. - Volume ^ = v Pressure (air flows in) - Volume v = ^ Pressure (air flows out) - Controlled by the brain/medulla oblongata/brain stem.
- Gas Exchange
- - Alveoli - right next to pulmonary capillaries. - Maximal storage area for quick gas exchange.
- Lung Volumes
- 5-6 liters at full capacity.