Psyc 201

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"Type A" Coronary-prone Behavior Pattern: Constellation of characteristics, including impatience, anger, and hostility, which has been linked to heart disease
Automatic Process Controlled Process: Judgment or thought that we cannot control

Judgment or thought that we command
Counterfactual Thinking Upward Downward: Reflecting on how past events might have turned out differently
Reflecting on how things could have been better
Reflecting on how things could have been worse
Random Assignment Random Sampling: Each participant is equally likely to take part in the different experimental conditions
Every person in a particular population has the same probability of being in the study
Social Comparisson Downward Upward: Process of comparing ourselves to others in order to judge the self
Comparing to people worse off
Comparing to people better off
Accessibility: Ease in which the schema comes to awareness
Achievement Motivation: Disposition that represents the extent to which people are positively or negatively aroused by performance settings
Actor-observer difference: Pattern of differences in attributions in which actors tend to make external attributions for their own behavior, whereas observers tend to make internal attributions for the same actions
Ambivalent Attitudes: Evaluations of targets that include both positive and negative elements
Attitudes: Individual's evaluation of a target along a good-bad dimension
Attribution: Causal judgments about why an event or behavior occured
Auto kinetic Effect: In a darkened room, a stationary point of light will appear to move periodically
Availability Hueristic: Tendency to base a judgment on how easily relevant examples can be generated
Behavioral Intention: Individual's plan to perform or not perform an action
Behaviorism: Explains behavior as purely stimulus-response connections from experience and reinforcement
Blank Line-up: Group of individuals that does not include the suspect
Categorization: Process of recognizing and identifying something
Central Route to Persuasion: Persuasion that occurs when attitude change results from a careful analysis of the information in a persuasive communication
Chronic Accessibility: Extent to which schemas are easily activated for an individual across time and situations
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Model that states that awareness of consonant cognitions makes us feel good, whereas awareness of dissonant cognitions makes us feel bad; further, the unpleasant feelings produced by dissonant cognitions motivate us to do something to change our state
Collectivist Culture: Cultures in which people are seen as interdependent beings who should contribute to harmonious group functioning
Compatibility Principle: Theory stating that a measure of attitudes will correlate highly with a measure of behavior only when the two measures are matched in terms of being general/broad or specific/narrow
Compliance: Change in behavior that is requested by another person or group
Conformity: Change in behavior that is caused by another person or group
Consonant Cognitions: Beliefs that are consistent or compatible with one another
Correlational Research: Studies in which investigators measure two or more concepts and see whether the concepts are associated
Correspondence Bias: Tendency to assume that people's actions and words reflect their personality, their attitudes, or some other internal factor, rather than the external or situational factors
Crutchfield: Machine that consists of an electrical panel with several rows of lights; it allows the efficient study of conformity by simulating the responses of numerous hypothetical participants
Cult behaviors: Selective Targeting, Isolation of Recruits, Sleep Deprivation, Love Bombing, Repetition, Foot-in-the-Door Technique, Denial of Privacy, Reciprocity, Fear Mongering
Cultural Truisms: Attitudes and beliefs that are widely shared and rarely challenged in a society
Defensive High-self Esteem: Positive self-view that is fragile and vulnerable to threat
Demand Characteristics: Cues that suggest how subjects should respond
Dependent/Independent Variable: Concepts measured by the researcher
Manipulated Factors
Destructive Cult: Rigidly structured group, led by a charismatic leader, which recruits and retains members using manipulative, deceptive techniques
Dispositions: Individual consistencies across time and settings in a specific type of feeling, thought, and/or action, which make individuals different from other people
Dissonant Cognitions: Belief that are inconsistent or logically discrepant with one another
Effort Justification Paradigm: Research methodology used to test dissonance theory, which arouses dissonance by getting people to invest time or energy to achieve a goal that may not be worthwhile
Elaboration Likelihood Model: Theory of attitude change that specifies the conditions under which people will think carefully about the content of a persuasive message; it distinguishes between two types of processing-the central route to persuasion and the peripheral route to persuas
Experimental Research: Empirical Investigations in which researchers manipulate on concept (or more than one) and asses the impact of the manipulations
Explicit Attitudes: Evaluations that people can report consciously
External Validity: Extent to which the research can be generalized beyond the current sample
Extraneous Variables: Potential sources of error in the experiment and should be controlled
Failure-Threatened/Opportunity Motivated: Self Esteem differences
False Consensus Effect: Tendency to assume other people share their attitude and behavior to a greater extent than is actually the case
Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Strategy to increase compliance, based on the fact that agreement with a small request increases the likelihood of agreement with a subsequent larger request
Free Choice Paradigm: Research methodology used to test dissonance theory, which arouses dissonance by getting people to choose between two or more alternatives
Free-gift Technique: Strategy used to increase compliance, based on the fact that giving someone a small gift increases the likelihood of agreement with a subsequent request
Gender Stereotype: Only differences occur in homicidal aggression and factors of attraction
Hard Sell: Advertising strategy that relies on presenting information about the positive features of a product
Heuristic: Informational rules or shortcuts that are used to make everyday judgments
Heuristic Persuasion: Attitude change resulting from cues that indicate that the position advocated in a message is valid
Heuristic Processing: Superficial analysis of a message that focuses on cues indicating the validity or invalidity of the advocated position
Hindsight Bias: Tendency for people to overestimate the predictability of outcomes
Hypocrisy Paradigm: Research methodology used to test disonance theory, which arouses dissonance by having people publicly promote a socially desirable behavior and then be made aware that they have not always exhibited the behavior themselves in the past
Identity: Characteristics that individuals think define them and make up their most important qualities
Illusion of Control: Overestimation of control in events and situations
Illusory Correlation: False belief of correlation between two variables
Implicit Attitudes: Automatic evaluative responses to a target, which may occur without awarness
Impression Management Theory: Alternative to dissonance theory, which argues that participants in dissonance experiments want to appear consistent to the experimenter and therefore lie about their attitudes
Individualistic Culture: Cultures in which people are seen as independent beings who possess stable abilities, traits, and attitudes
Induced Compliance Paradigm: Research methodology used to test dissonance theory, which arouses dissonance by getting people to engage in counter attitudinal behavior; participants are induced to comply with an experimenter's request that they behave in a way that is inconsistent
Informational Influence: Influence from other people that is motivated by a desire to be correct and to obtain accurate information
Ingratiation Strategies: Behavior designed to make someone like you
(Ex: Flattery, Friendliness, Giving, etc...)
Inoculation Theory: Model of building resistance to persuasion by exposing people to arguments against their attitude position and giving them counterarguments that refute the attack; it is based on the process of medical inoculation
Interaction: Relation between independent variables
Internal Validity: Extent to which the research yields clear causal information
Liking Technique: Strategy used to increase compliance, based on the fact that people are more likely to assist others they find appealing than others they do not find appealing
Low-ball Technique: Strategy used to increase compliance, in which something is offered at a given price, but then, after agreement the price is increased
Mere Exposure Effect: Tendency for repeated contact with an object, even without reinforcement, to increase liking for the object
Minimal Group Paradigm: Procedure in which participants are divided into groups based on trivial features or information
Mundane Realism: Extent to which the experimental setting looks and feels like the outside world
Narcissism (threatened egotism): Disposition that represents the extent to which people have excessive love for themselves
Need for Cognition: Disposition that represents how much people enjoy and engage in thinking
Nonverbal Behavior: Actions and cues that communicate meaning in ways other than by words
Norm of Obedience to Authority: Principle that we should obey legitimate authorities
Norm of Reciprocity: Principle that we should give back in return any favors that are done for us
Normative Influence: Influence from other people that is motivated by a desire to gain rewards or avoid punishment
Obedience: Change in behavior that is ordered by another person or group
Observational Studies: Correlational investigations in which the researcher watches the participant and codes measures from the observed behavior in real time.
Operational Definition: Specific, Observable responses that are used to measure a concept
Optimal Distinctiveness Theory: Model hypothesizing that people want to maintain a balance between similarity to other people and individuality from other people
Out-group Homogeneity Effect: Tendency for people to overestimate the similarity within groups to which they do not belong
Parental Investment Hypothesis: Idea that having children is more costly for women than for men, which has led to the evolution of some differences between the sexes in the characteristics they seek in mates
Parts of the Self: Actual-how we really are
Ought-how we should be
Ideal-what we want to be
Peripheral Cues: Simple features or heuristics that are assumed to show that a message is valid
Peripheral Route to Persuasion: Persuasion that occurs when attitude change results from non cognitive factors; it encompasses evaluative conditioning and mere exposure
Perseverance Effect: Tendency for people to make self-evaluations that are consistent with the information that has been discredited
Preference for Consistency (PFC): Disposition that represents the extent to which people desire predictability and compatibility within their own responses and within others' responses
Priming: Process that increases the accessibility of a schema
Propoganda: Persuasive attempt that is motivated by and ideology, or set of values, and that is deliberately biased in its presentation of information
Protection Motivation Theory: Model that articulates how threatening messages can influence attitudes and behavior
Psychosocial Law: Principle in social impact theory that specifies the nature of the relation between the size of a group and ists social influence; the principle predicts that as the number of social forces increases, overall social influence also increases, but at a decl
Reactance Theory: Model of how people respond to threats on their freedom
Refutational Defense: Exposing people to arguments against their attitudinal position along with counterarguments that refute the attack
Reliability: Consistency or reliability of score on a measure, both over time and across judges
Representative Sample: Group of respondents that accurately reflects the larger population
Scarcity Technique: Strategy used to increase the attractiveness of a product by making it appear rare or temporary
Schemas: Mental representations of objects or categories which contain the central features of the object or category as well as assumptions about how the object or category works
Secure High-self Esteem: Positive self-view that is confidently held
Self-Affirmation Theory: Alternative to dissonance theory, which argues that people are threatened by behavior that challenges their self-worth and can deal with this threat by reaffirming an important value
Self-concept: Information about the self in memory
Self-esteem: Disposition that represents people's judgments of their own worthiness
Self-fulfilling Prophecy: Process in which the perceiver's expectancy about a target person influences the percievers's behavior towad the target person in such a way as to elicit the expected actions from the target person
Self-handicapping: Tendency to seek, create, or claim inhibitory factors that interfere with performance and thus provide an explanation for a potential failure
Self-monitoring: Disposition that represents the extent to which people rely on external or internal cues to guide their behavior
Self-perception theory: Theory proposing that we often judge our own internal states by reviewing our past behavior and inferring internal states consistent with our behavior unless there were clear external causes of our behavior
Self-serving Judgments: Perceptions or comparisons that enhance the perceived worth of the self
Social Contract: Human Society has developed some basic rules of social and moral conduct
Social Identity Theory: Model hypothesizing that people want to have positive appraisals of groups to which they belong
Social Impact Theory: Model that conceives of influence from other people as being the result of social forces acting on individuals, much like physical forces can affect an object
Social Norm: Rule or guideline in a group or culture about what behaviors are proper and improper
Socialization: Process by which infants are molded into acceptable members of their society
Socially Desirable Responding: Bias that occurs in self-report when respondents are motivated to create a positive impression of themselves
Soft Sell: Advertising strategy that relies on the use of images, emotions, symbols, or values to promote a product
Spontaneous Self-concept: Aspects of identity that are in conscious awareness at a given point of time
Stereotype: Set of characteristics that a perceiver asscociates with members of a group
Supportive Defense: Exposing people arguments that are consistent with their attitude position
Systematic Processing: Careful, deliberate analysis of the arguments in a message
Systematic-heuristic Model: Theory of attitude change that distinguishes between two types of processing that can occur in response to a persuasive message-systematic processing and heuristic processing
Terror Management Theory: Model hypothesizing that recognition of their own mortality raises anxiety in humans, which they can reduce by affirming and conforming to their cultural worldview
Theory of Planned Behavior: Attitudes can be used to predict behavior when there is no: External Threat, Lack of Alternatives, Biological Needs or Addiction, Lack of Time
Theory of Reasoned Action: Model of behavior that views humans as rational decision makers who behave on the basis of logical beliefs
Unobtrusive Measures: Method that reduces social desirability because participants don't realize that measures are being taken

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