Psychology 200: Cognitive Psychology
Terms
undefined, object
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Attention
(problem) -
the mechanism for continued cognitive processing
(assumes single psychological attention b/c one word) - QUESTION 1:Can attention be distributed to more than one task at a time?
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discrete vs. continuous tasks
YES, we can do more than one task at the same time, but can't distinguish between parallel and switching - Serial
- perform one task at a time
- parallel
- perform multiple tasks at a time
- QUSTION 2: Does dividing attention change the way the task is performed?
- It can: qualitative/quantitative
- Amount of Attention: Does a task require a consistent amount of attention?
- NO, selective interference
- selective interference
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explains why some taksks can take more attention depending on methods and how you ask
ex) say response- letter task easier
point response- sentence response easier - Limitation: What is the nature of the capacity limitation?
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1) Resources
2) Structural
3) Filter - Multiple Resource Theories
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different takss tap into different types of resources
Problem- don't know number of resources; can explain things, but can't PREDICT - Structural Theories
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particular structures are needed for particular tasks
Problem: interference occurs when there is competition for a structure ex) chewing gum and whistling - Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)
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all tasks have 3 stages:
1) Perception get info to do task
2) Response Solution- limitation of responses (one at a time)
3) Response Production- execution of response
Problem: can get interference when there is NO RESPONSE - Filter
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lots of information, most is filtered out before you know it; store of conditional probabilities of past events (programs to alter filter for what is allowed to go through)
ex) Dichotic Listening - Dichotic Listening
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differnt messages in both ears
told to listen to one ear
recall little from unattended channel - Late selection filter
- can't explain initial results
- moveable filter
- explain everything, predict nothing!!
- Automaticity
- practicing an act, and that act taking less of our attention the more we practice
- Automatic
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*takes few/if any attentional resources
*occurs w/o intention
*must run to completion
*not open to awareness - Controlled
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*requires many attentional resources
*occurs w/ intention
*need not run to completion
*may be open to awareness - Stroop Task
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EFFECTS OF PRACTICE
1)showed shapes of differnt colors and asked to name color
2) showed word of color in different color
*reading the word of the color is automatic unlike seeing which color the word is, so you can't stop yourself reading the word. With practice, the participants could do these tasks much faster - Schneider & Shiffrin
- consists of varied mapping condition and consistent mapping condition
- varied mapping conditon
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targets could be distractors from frame to frame
*takes more attention - consistent mapping condition
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95% correct at faster rate than varied
*CM not affected by memory set size
*CM not affected by frame set size
*Cannot easily unlearn
*starts controlled and turns into automatic - Logans Instance Theory
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*accuracy of automaticity
*Statisticial Property
*the more times you do something, the more likely you are to used retrieved memory (auto)
*the more instances you have, the more likely you will have a correct answer
Horse Race - Horse Race
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statistical property
*the more horses, the more likely there will be an extreme time - Visual Attention
- object based vs. spatially based
- Helmholtz
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SPATIAL
*attention is not the same as fixation (just because you're looking at something doesn't mean you're paying ATTENTION to it) - James
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SPATIAL
focus of attention is like a spotlight (narrow=faster,more focused but less info, wide=slower, more info less focused) - Posner Spatial Cueing Task
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benefit for valid cue, decreases RT
invalid cue increases RT substantially - Simple Feature Search
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targets features don't overlap w/ distractors features
*automatic - Conjunctive Search
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target/distractor features overlap
*attention needed
*slow, # of distractors matters
RT greatly increases - Feature Integration Theory
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*2 stages
*Pre-attentive processing
*conjunctive processing - Pre-attentive processing
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*automatic, based on color,orientation, size
*# of background items doesn't change RT - Conjunctive Processing
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*serial processing
*attention necessary, "glue" effect, takes resources - Memory Improvement
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1) pay attention
2)avoid interference
3)use distributed rehearsal
4) identity cues
5)appropriate practice - Pay Attention
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*encode information
*take a nap(absense of similar type of thoughts)
ex) names-reapeat, ask for spelling, use in sentence, associate w/ feature - Avoid Interference
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retroactive interference
proactive interference
key word:bad - Retroactive Interference
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information you are trying to learn can interfere w/ old information
ex) new telephone # interferes w/ old - Proactive Interference
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information you alrady know can interfere with learning new info
ex) when you 1st get new phone #, old one interferes - Key Word: bad
- works well once, but proactive interference when doing the same thing multiple times
- Massed vs. Distributed Practice/Rehearsal
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*Retain verbal tasks longer w/ distributed studying
*acquire nonverbal tasks faster w/ distributed studying - Retrieval Cue
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*identify retrieval cue that will be available at test
www.unforgetablelanguages.com - Appropriate Practice and Processing
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*develop automaticity
*intergrate w/ exhisting knowledge
*don't study w/ answers in front of you
*think what the test will ask (short answer or multiple choice) - Modal Model(picture)
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*statistical term- mode
*Flow of Information- Sensory:STM:LTM - 1. Sensory Memory
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*holds unanalyzed/physical info
500ms-2s
Visual-iconic
Auditory-echoic - STM
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Short Term Memory
*holds acoustic-verbal-linguistic info
*20-30s - Long Term Memory
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Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory - What was Sensory Memory replaced with?
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*Stimulus Persistence: something like the stimulus that seems to persist after the stimulus disapprears
*Information Persistence: information can be extracted from the stimulus after it has disappeared memory. Information has been recoded. - Method of Savings
- More you save, more you remember
- Brown-Peterson Paradigm
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1.recall consonant trigams (CLX)
2.Distractor task to prevent rehearsal
3.less than 10% after 18 sec.
*showed forgetting rate faster for STM - Different Causes of Forgetting
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LTM: Interference
STM: Decay - Different Patterns of Errors
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LTM: Semantic
STM: Acoustic (Acoustic Confusion Effect) - Acoustic Confusion Effect
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much harder to learn things that sound similar, than non-similar
ex)TDVBPC harder than FLMQKX - Working Memory
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has to do with memory span
Central Executive
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Phonological Loop - Central Executive
- decided how many attention resources outside gets
- Phonological Loop
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holds "speech" sounds
-accoustic confusion effect
decay is about 2 seconds - Articulatory Control Process
- rehearses items in phonologic store to offset decay
- Episodic Memory
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memory from own personal episodes
*AWARE of the original learning context - Infantile amnesia
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adults recall very few memories of events that occured before age 4/5
*b/c of brain not being fully developed - Reminiscnece bump
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adults recall LOTS OF MEMORIES of events that occurred between ages 10-30
*b/c you're doing most things for the first time - Semantic Memory
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generic memory
*UNAWARE of the original learning context - Procedural Memory
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NON-DECLARATIVE
made up of declarative and procedural - Declarative
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knowing "that"
1. Primary
2. episodic
3. semantic
ex) knowing that you know info, but not knowing how - Procedural
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knowing "how"
riding a bicycle
typing
classical conditioning
*can do it, but can't show someone - Perceptual Representation System (PRS)
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Non-declarative/Implicit
Implicit Memory
Implicit Learning
Tower of Hanoi - Implicit Memory
- need not be consciously aware of the relation between study and test phases
- Implicit Learning
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want to know if people acquire pattern, but now how
*subjects can show you pattern, but if you ask them how they acquired the pattern, they can't show you - Tower of Hanoi
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amnesia subjects did just as good as Control subjects, showing declarative memory sytem is not important
(picture) - Proceduralist Approach
- mnemonic properties are determined by how you process it
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Levels of Processing
(Basic Idea) -
*memory is a byproduct of processing
*greater depth=better memory
*memory improvement due to DEPTH, not intention or rehearsal
*Processing more important than structures - Problems with Levels of Processing
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Circular
Predicts deep is ALWAYS better than shallow
Morris et. al. - Circular
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1. memory is best w/ deep processing
2. know if item is well-recalled if using deep processing
3. no independent measure of depth
4. don't know which is shallow/deep - Morris et. al.
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different tasks and different types of processing
*deep processing better for recall/recognition
*deep not ALWAYS better - Transfer Appropriate Processing
- memory better when processing at study is APPROPRIATE for processing required at test
- Encoding Specificity
- recollection of an event or a certain spect of it depends on the interaction between the properties of the encoded event and the properties of the retrieval information
- Context
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environment dependent
state dependent
mood dependent - Nominal Stimulus
- what the experimenter thinks
- Functional Stimulus
- what the person thinks