AP exam 1
Terms
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- ANATOMY MEANS
- cutting open
- WHAT IS GROSS ANATOMY?
- looking at surface markings, things you can see with your eyes
- WHAT IS MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY?
- tissues, cells, things that are very small
- WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGY?
- study of how the body and it's parts function
- WHAT ARE THE 7 LAVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION? (AMOCTOOO)
- atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ system, organism
- WHAT IS HOMEOSTASIS?
- making everything stay the same (like temperature control) and keeping things normal to enable function
- WHAT IS A VARIABLE?
- process/change that needs homeostatic regulation
- WHAT IS A RECEPTOR?
- sensor that recognizes change in variable
- WHAT IS A CONTROL CENTER?
- processes the need for change and it will send out a response through an effector
- WHAT IS AN EFFECTOR?
- causes a change based on a message from the control center
- WHAT IS A NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM?
- action the opposes the variation (ex: your temperature increases to decrease your body temperature OR when you lose blood, your body increases blood production
- WHAT IS A POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM?
- an exaggerated response or an exaggerated variable (ex: blood clotting)
- WHO NAMED THE FIRST CELL?
- Hooke in 1665
- WHAT IS THE CELL THEORY? (5 PARTS)
- 1. cells are the building block of life 2. cells come from other cells 3. cells are the smallest form of life 4. cells maintain homeostasis 5. cells can organize and coordinate with other cells to function as a unit
- WHAT IS CYTOLOGY?
- the study of cells
- WHAT ARE SOMATIC CELLS?
- (body cells) DIPLOID which means there are 46 chromosomes
- WHAT IS A SEX CELL?
- only sperm or oocytes, haploid and contain 23 chromosomes
- WHAT IS A CYTOPLASM?
- everything inside the cell membrane except the nucleus
- WHAT IS THE CYTOSOL?
- the fluid inside the cell
- WHAT IS THE PRIMARY FUNCTION OF THE CELL MEMBRANE?
- to separate the cell from surrounding fluid and determines what goes in and out
- WHAT ARE THE 4 COMPONENTS THAT MAKE UP THE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE?
- lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and cholesterol
- synthesis of lipids and glycogen takes place at the
- smooth ER
- most of a cell's DNA is located in it's
- nucleus
- the process by which molecules such as glucose are moved into cells along their concentration gradient with the help of membrane-bound carrier proteins is called
- facilitated diffusion
- the movement of oxygen from an area of high concentration to and area of low concentration is an example of
- diffusion
- most of the ATP required to power cellular operations is produced in the
- mitochondria
- the watery component of the cytoplasm is the
- cytosol
- the control center for cellular operations is the
- nucleus
- the components of ribosomes are formed within
- nucleoli
- "spikes" form on a blood cell when it is placed in a ___ solution
- hypertonic
- the cell membrane is primarily composed of
- a phospholipid bilayer
- the phosphate layer is_____, while the lipid later is _____
- hydrophylic, hydrophobic
- what is an integral protein?
- a protein that cannot be removed from the membrane without damage being done
- what is a peripheral protein?
- a protein that can be easily separated from the membrane
- what are the 2 main functions of anchoring proteins
- attach to nearby structures and attach the membrane to the cytoskeleton
- what to recognizer proteins do?
- recognize abnormal cells
- what do enzymes do at the membrane protein level
- catalyze reacions in the fluid (make something happen that without it wouldn't be able to happen)
- what do receptor proteins do?
- change cell activity when receptor is activated
- what do carrier proteins do?
- transport materials across the membrane
- what do channel proteins do?
- integral proteins that allow specific material to pass through
- what is a leak channel
- a channel that is always open
- what is a gated channel
- a channel that is sometimes open, sometimes closed
- glycocalyx is a membrane ____
- carbohydrate
- membrane carbohydrates are found where in the cell?
- the outer surface of the cell membrane
- what are 3 functions of membrane carbohydrates?
- protect the cell membrane, anchor the cell in place, act as receptors and identifiers (recognize OUR cells as OURS)
- what is the function of cholesterol in the cell?
- provides stability and keeps things where it should be for cell membrane
- what does impermeable mean?
- can't move across is EVER
- what does freely permeable mean?
- no restrictions, something can move without difficulty
- what does selectively permeable mean?
- permeable to some, not to others
- getting through a selectively permeable membrane is based on _____
- size, charge, and shape
- what is a passive process?
- the majority are this way; it means no energy is required by the cell
- what is active process?
- requires ATP to move
- the net movement of materials from high to low concentrations until the concentration gradient is eliminated is called
- diffusion
- when going through diffusion, undisturbed materials will reach
- equilibrium
- what are some factors that will effect the rate of diffusion?
- size, temperature, distance, electrical forces
- smaller molecules will dissolve ____ than larger ones
- faster
- an increased temperature will _______ the rate of diffusion
- increase
- a shorter distance will mean fast or slow rate of diffusion?
- fast
- which ions will diffuse faster, positive or negative ones?
- positive, because the inside of our cells are negative
- osmosis only involves the movement of
- water across a selectively permeable membrane
- intracellular and extracellular fluids are solutions that contain:
- a variety of dissolved materials
- during osmosis, intracellular and extracellular fluids want to reach
- equilibrium
- during osmosis, the membrane is permeable to water but NOT the
- solute
- what happens during osmosis
- water passively diffuses from high concentrations (of water) to low concentrations (of water)
- what is osmotic pressure
- pulling pressure - the high the pressure, the more water moves toward it
- during osmosis, the ____ doesn't need to be the same, but the ____ does
- volume, concentration
- what is hydrostatic pressure
- the opposite of osmotic-it occurs through applied force
- what is isotonic solution
- intracellular solution concentration EQUALS the extracellular concentration
- in an isotonic solution, how much movement is there?
- none - each side is equal
- what is a hypotonic solution
- extracellular concentration is lower than inside the cell
- if a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, what will happen to it?
- it will fill with water and swell
- what is a hypertonic solution
- extracellular solution is greater than inside the cell - the cell shrinks
- what is filtration
- when hydrostatic pressure pushes fluid across the membrane
- where does filtration often occur
- capillary beds, kidneys
- most proteins only carry ___ type of molecule/ion across the membrane
- one
- what are cotransport proteins?
- 2 types going in the same direction
- what are countertransport proteins?
- 2 types going in opposite directions (ex: one going in, one going out)
- what are the 2 types of carrier mediated transport?
- facilitated diffusion and active transport
- does active transport require energy?
- yes
- during active transport, ion pumps in cells transport what? (4 possible things)
- potassium, calcium, sodium and magnesium ions
- what does an exchange pump do?
- moves 2 ions in opposite directions in during active transport
- in a sodium-potassium exchange pump, there will always be ___ going to the cell and ___ going out
- 2 in, 3 out (to maintain negative charge in cell)
- what is the cytoskeleton made of
- microtubules, microfilaments, thick filaments and intermediate filaments
- what do microvilli do
- increase the surface area
- where might you find a lot of microvilli
- small intestine
- what do cilia do
- move fluids across the cell surface
- what does a centriole do
- serves as an anchor during mitosis
- what cell organelle does a neuron NOT have
- centriole
- what do ribosomes do
- translate mRNA and help produce proteins
- what is the structure of a mitochondria
- double-membrane bound organelle with a smooth outer layer and a maze-like inner layer
- what does the rough ER do
- modification and transport of proteins because ribosomes are attached
- the golgi apparatus is a type of _____ tissue
- glandular
- what does the golgi apparatus do?
- packages and delivers secretions, excretions and cell membrane renewal vesicles
- this is a membrane bound sac that contains digestive enzymes
- lysosome
- what does a lysosome do
- breaks down and digest stuff like harmful bacteria
- what does a peroxisome do
- generates hydrogen peroxide and then helps to break it down into water and oxygen
- what is the nucleus enclosed in
- nuclear envelope
- what organelle contains chromosomes
- nucleus
- the dark spot inside the nucleus is the
- nucleolus
- what is the nucleolus responsible for
- providing ribosomes and synthesizing RNA around DNA
- what is endocytosis
- bringing material into the cell
- what is exocytosis
- moving material out of the cell
- receptor-mediated transport is a type of ____ transport
- vescular
- what is receptor-mediated transport?
- receptors bind to ligands (targets) and the bound receptors and ligands cluster together. They fuse with lysosomes, and the lysosomes frees the ligands so they can enter the cytosol - receptors are specific for certain materials
- what is pinocytosis?
- "drinking cell" - brings in a bulk amount of fluid
- what is phagocytosis?
- bringing in a bulk amount of materials (solids)
- what is the transmembrane potential?
- the potential difference or potential energy (possibility of energy) - the positive ions really want to get into the cell
- what are the 2 main stages of the cell life cycle
- interphase and mitosis
- what 2 things happen during interphase
- replication of DNA and protein synthesis
- what is interphase?
- the non-dividing cell; the cell is growing and performing functions and at the end of interphase (right before it's ready to divide) it does DNA replication
- what happens during DNA replication?
- the DNA double helix pulls apart, nucleotides join the 2 parts to form 2 new templates
- what does DNA give us
- structural proteins and enzymes
- what is protein synthesis?
- a small section of DNA strand opens up to get a copy of a gene (mRNA) to take back to the cell. mRNA is decoded by the ribosomes and then make a protein
- what is the basic idea of mitosis?
- cell division - the cell divides into 2 identical daughter cells
- what are the 4 stages of mitosis?
- prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
- what is cytokinesis?
- the splitting of the cell by making a cleavage furrow; this is complete when a nuclear membrane surrounds both new cells
- when does cytokinesis appear?
- anaphase to telophase
- what happens during prophase?
- nuclear envelope disappears; chromatin coils and become chromosomes - they move to their centromeres and spindle fibers extend between the pairs
- what phase does the nuclear envelope disappear?
- prophase
- why does chromatin coil?
- in order to protect itself
- what happens in metaphase?
- chromosomes line up with centromere at the cell equator
- what happens during anaphase?
- centromere breaks and chromosomes are pulled to oppose ends of the cell with 46 chromosomes on each side
- what happens during telophase?
- spind appareatus disappears; centrioles are at the nucleus, chromosomes uncoil, nucleoli reappears
- the exact opposite of prophase is ____
- telophase
- at what part of the cell cycle is there 96 chromosomes for a brief moment?
- interphase
- what is the largest organ in the body?
- the skin
- what are the 2 layers of the skin
- epidermis and the dermis
- is the epidermis vascular or avascular?
- avascular - no blood vessels
- what does the epidermis rely on the dermis for?
- nutrients and structure
- what are the 4 cells founds in the epidermis?
- keratinocyte, melanocyte, langerhans/dendridic, and merkel
- what is the most abundant cell in the epidermis?
- keratinocyte
- what does a keratinocyte do?
- produces and fills with keratin which helps with structure
- what is a keratinocytes life cycle
- 25-25 days
- what does a melanoctye do?
- produces melanin (pigment) and sends it into melanosomes which go into keratinocytes to give color
- what does a dendridic cell do?
- stimulate immune response to microorganisms and surface skin cancers
- what does a merkel cell do?
- found in hairless areas of the skin and have sensory receptors to light touch
- what cells are in hairless areas of the body?
- hairless areas of the skin like palms and soles
- what does strata mean?
- layers
- what is the deepest layer of the epidermis?
- stratum basale
- what is the most superficial layer of the epidermis?
- stratum corneum
- what are the 5 layers of the epidermis?
- basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, corneum
- how many layers is your thick skin?
- 5
- how many layers is your thin skin?
- 4
- what is the stratum basale?
- made of basale cells (stem cells) when they divide, 1 goes up into the next layer - contain merkel cells and melanocytes
- what is the stratum spinosum?
- interconnected to desmosomes which are the spiny layer
- what is the stratum granulosum?
- last layer of living cells; keratin production increases and cells become thinner and flatter and dehydrate and die
- what is the statum lucidum?
- in the thick skin only - layer of cells that are flattened and filled with keratin
- what is the stratum corneum?
- 75% thickness; pull off in sheets
- how many cells thick is the basale?
- 1
- how many cells thick is the spinosum?
- 8-10
- how many cells thick is the granulosum?
- 3-5
- how many cells thick is the corneum?
- 15-30
- what does the papillary plexus do?
- supply blood to the epidermis
- what is cyanosis?
- blue/grey tint caused by poorly oxygenated blood (dark red blood looks blue through the skin)
- what is pallor?
- reduced color in the skin because blood flow to an area has stopped
- what is jaundice?
- when the liver can't process bile so it gets released in to the skin
- what does addison's disease cause?
- bronzing
- An epidermal layer found only in the skin of the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet is the _______
- stratum lucidum
- An albino individual lacks the ability to produce
- melanin
- The layer of hard keratin that coats the hair is termed the
- cuticle
- Sensible perspiration is produced by ________ glands.
- merocrine sweat
- The pale, crescent-shaped area at the base of a nail is called the
- lunula
- A thickened area of scar tissue that is covered by a shiny, smooth epidermal surface is called a(n) ________.
- keloid
- The layer of the skin that provides protection against bacteria as well as chemical and mechanical injuries is the
- epidermis
- Accessory structures of the skin include:
- nails, hair, multicellular exocrine glands
- The layer of the skin that contains the blood vessels and nerves closest to the surface of the skin is the ________ layer.
- papillary
- nail production occurs at the
- nail root
- what 3 things are found in the papillary layer?
- dermal papillae, Meissner's corpuscles, epidermal ridges
- where do cleavage lines run?
- areas of stress
- why is it important surgeons cut along cleavage lines?
- the incision will heal faster and leave less scaring (ex: new c-section scars vs. old ones)
- what is a flexure line?
- area of extra skin that helps in areas of movement
- where are flexure lines found?
- anywhere going around a joint - knuckles, elbows, knees, etc.
- what is a blister?
- when the separation of the epidermis and dermis occurs, fluid fills between
- if you get a blood blister, it means you've pinched what?
- papillary plexus
- what is dermititis?
- inflammation of the skin
- another word for striae is
- stretch marks
- how do you get striae?
- results from torn dermis - when materials under the skin grow faster than the skin
- wrinkles occur when we lose _____ in the skin
- elastin
- hives, diaper rash, and eczema are all examples of
- dermititis
- true or false: the hypodermis layer is part of the skin
- FALSE
- why is the subcutaneous/hypodermis layer important?
- it provides stability for the skin and holds the subcutaneous fat (connects skin to muscle)
- the brown, yellow-brown or black pigment that gives the skin color
- melanin
- do darker-skinned individuals have more melanocytes than light-skinned people?
- NO - we have the same AMOUNT of melanocytes
- what 3 things determine racial differences?
- the size of melanosome, the type of pigment and where it enters the strata (light people=pigment is deeper, darker people=pigment is closer to the surface)
- melanin is produced by:
- melanocytes
- after a melanocyte makes melanin, where does it go?
- keratinocyte
- what effect does UV light have on skin?
- it stimulates melanocytes to produce more melanin which leads to more color
- what is carotene?
- yellow to orange pigment and collects in the corneum
- when your hemoglobin is oxygenated, it is what color?
- bright red
- what are the functions of the hair and hair follicles?
- sensory, protection, filters
- which layer of skin would you find the hair follicle opens up to?
- epidermal
- what is vellus hair?
- very fine, like peach fuzz
- what is terminal hair?
- heavy, deeply pigmented hair you would find on the head, pubic region and armpits
- what is the avg. growth cycle for hair in the scalp?
- 2-5 years
- what is a club hair?
- a hair that has stopped growing
- the portion of the hair follicle where cell divisions occur is the
- matrix
- the primary function of sensible perspiration is
- thermoregulation
- the stratum corneum of the nail root, which extends over the exposed nail is called the
- eponychium
- the 2 major components of the integumentary system are
- cutaneous membrane and the accessory structures
- too much exposure to UV light can do what
- damage cell DNA
- in what layer of the epidermis does cell division occur?
- stratum germinativum
- the 2 types of exocrine glands in the skin are
- sebaceous and sweat glands
- what determines if you get male pattern baldness?
- genetics
- what is alopecia?
- when your hair goes from course to vellus
- what determines our hair color?
- the amount of melanin produced by the melanocytes in hair matrix
- why does our hair color start to fade as we get older?
- because pigment production in melanocytes starts to cease the older we get (ie, gray hair!)
- your merocrine sweat glands can be found abundantly where?
- palms, soles of feet, and forehead
- what do are merocrine glands secrete?
- 99% water with some solutes in it
- what are the solutes in sweat produced in the merocrine glands?
- salt, antibodies, lactic acid, metabolic waste
- When are the apocrine glands activated?
- puberty
- Where are the apocrine sweat glands located?
- mostly in armpits and groin
- What type of sweat does the apocrine sweat glands produce?
- a sticky and cloudy secretion
- What is the function of the apocrine sweat glands?
- we're not really sure - it may be to create our own personal scent (similar to pheromones)
- Where is a ceruminous gland?
- your ear
- what does a ceruminous gland combine with the sebaceous gland to produce?
- cerumin - ear wax
- a sebaceous gland produces
- sebum - an oily secretion
- where would you NOT find sebaceous glands and follicles?
- palms and soles (thick skin)
- what are the main functions of sebum? (4)
- 1-soften skin 2-prevents hair from being brittle 3-prevents water loss 4-bacteriocidal
- Where do you find a lot of sebaceous glands and follicles?
- head, face, back and chest (think of areas where you would likely find acne)
- the nails are a modified version of what skin layer?
- stratum corneum
- the nail body lays on the
- nail bed
- the hard part of the nail that we feel is the
- stratum corneum
- the nail root makes what?
- new stratum corneum
- the 1/2 moon shape on the nail is called the
- lunula
- the nail cuticle is also known as the
- eponychium
- the lunula is present because the corneum is not fully attached to the what?
- nail root
- What are the main functions of the integumentary system? (6)
- 1-protection 2-thermoregulation 3-cutaneous sensation 4-vitamin D synthesis 5-excretion 6-storage of lipids
- how does vitamin D synthesis work?
- vitamin D circulates in the blood, UV rays break it down and enables us to use calcium (this is why in 3rd-world areas with little sunlight kids have bone issues)
- why are stem cells so important?
- they cause regeneration
- germinative cells do what?
- replace lost epidermal cells
- mesenchymal cells do what?
- replace lost dermal cells
- what are the 2 types of stem cells involved with skin regeneration?
- germinative and mesenchymal
- what are the 4 main stages of regeneration?
- 1-bleeding occurs 2-scab/clot forms 3-new skin starts to replace the scab/clot 4-new skin is present with no scab or clot
- during the first stage of regeneration, mast cells do what?
- initiate an immediate immune response to start cleanup
- why is a scab important?
- it serves as temporary protection and helps to stop blood flow
- when a scab forms, what does the stratum germnativum do?
- fills in to form new epidermis
- having macrophages present during scab formation is important because
- it helps to fight off pathogens that may have made their way into the skin
- after injury, why does a scar look different than our previous skin?
- because the collagen fibers didn't form exactly like the previous collagen fibers
- After an injury, what does scar tissue NOT contain
- sweat glands, hair follicles, nerve cells
- scar tissue contains what
- collagen fibers
- an example of negative feedback is
- when you give blood away, your body increases blood production OR thermoregulation
- what is a cell?
- the smallest living unit in the body that sustains life
- these are long, slender extensions of the cell membrane
- cilia
- what cells don't have centrioles?
- neurons
- centrioles serve as an anchor during
- mitosis
- these are made of globular proteins
- ribosomes
- this organelle is smooth on the outside but looks like a maze on the inside
- mitochondria
- this organelle is made of a set of tunnels of membrane that surround the nucleus and fill up the cell
- ER
- this organelle looks like a block of swiss cheese
- ER
- this organelle is a stack of flattened membranes and might look like a stack of pita bread
- golgi apparatus
- how do sweat glands help regulate body temperature?
- neural and hormonal mechanisms decide how much we will sweat - the hotter our body temperature, the more we will sweat to help cool the skin