Anatomy

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valves: ensure one way flow of blood
stretch marks: connective tissue which reinforces skin to protect against tearing during times of extreme weight gain, hypertrophy, or pregnancy. Lacks melanocytes; does not tan.
epidermis: has 5 layers ("Bad Skin Gets Little Care"). stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum.
1st degree burn: only epidermis injured; heals within 2-3 days on own. localized swelling, redness, pain. sunburn.
head: a rounded region at the extremity of (typically) a long bone
abduction: movement away from the midline in the frontal plane
pulmonary semilunar valve: prevents reflux of blood onto right ventricle
condyle: large swellings on either side of the ends of limb bones (will also see used to describe regions around the condyles, as with "epicondyle" or "intercondylar")
Types of contractions: concentric, eccentric, and isometric. shortening of muscle occurs by shortening of the distance b/t the origin and the insertion. On rare occasion both insertion and origin will move.
nervous tissue: 1. Generates and conducts electrical impulses. 2. Generally incapable of dividing/ regenerating.
aorta: largest artery. branches into 1) coronary arteries, 2) arch of aorta, 3) thoracic aorta, and 4) abdominal aorta
2 types of muscle arrangement along tendon: parallel and pennate. classified by arrangement of fasciculi.
long bone tissue: has a dense thick, outer covering of the bone called the periosteum. the periosteum has 2 layers. an outer layer composed of a fibrous, dense irregular connective tissue; the inner layer is osteogenic. Sharpey's fibers secure the periosteum to the underlying matrix. Endosteum lines the marrow cavity. Compact bone forms the outer layers of the diaphysis. Spongy bone forms the core of the diaphysis, and the epiphyses.
interventricular septum: thick, muscular wall that separates the ventricles
Synarthrotic (no movement): bones connected by fibrous connective tissue. A. sutures: b/t bones of skull. B. synchondrosis: b/t jxn. of epiphysis and diaphysis, the epiphyseal plate. C. gomphosis: teeth in sockets of jaw.
Bundle of His: has right and left branches; distribute action potentials over medial ventricles
superior/cranial: structure is closer to head than another structure
stratum spinosum: Characterized by several layers of flat cells with short spines
Amphiarthrotic (little movement): bones connected by ligamentous or cartilaginous tissue. A. syndesmosis: b/t tibia and fibula, or ulna and radius. B. symphysis: b/t adjacent vertebrae in vertebral column
AV node: a compact mass of conducting cells near inferior interatrial septum. slowest area of conduction due to smaller fibers and connective tissue of nearby valves and cardiac skeleton, allows time for ventricles to fill
Dermis: mostly fibrous connective tissue -- composed of ground substance, collagen, elastin, and reticular fibers. Unlike epidermis, the dermis is highly vascular. Has 2 layers, the papillary layer and the reaticular layer.
frontal/coronal plane: (also called coronal plane) divides the body into front and back sections
articular/auricular: describes the area or surfaces of bones that meet with other bones
skeletal muscle: voluntary. connected to bone. striated, multi-nucleated
veins: capacitance vessels. contains about 65-70% of total blood in body (- 3.5 L). About 5 L of blood in total body. constriction of some veins can shunt blood to areas needing it.
venules: collect blood from capillary bed
organization of spongy bone tissue: trabeculae and marrow
Arrector pili muscles: attach to the hair follicle and elevate the hair shaft to aid in excretion of sebum. Activated by sympathetic stimulation. Responsible for the appearance of goosebumps.
cardiac cycle phases: 1. Filling phase 2. Isovolumetric contraction phase 3. Ejection phase 4. Isovolumetric relaxtion phase lub- dub-
tricuspid valve: prevents regurgitation of blood back into right atrium
Cardiac arrest: complete stoppage of the heart
sagittal plane: divides the body into unequal left and right halves; runs parallel to the median plane
pericardium: a double- walled sac surrounding the heart. Consists of 2 layers: fibrous pericardium (superficial) and serous pericardium (deep)
II. release of calcium into the sarcoplasm: A. the action potential spreads along the sarcolemma. B. the sarcolemma invaginates to form the T-tubules 1. the action potential spreads along the T-tubules. C. the T-tubules border the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum 1. the action potential triggers release of calcium from the SR
line: also a raised ridge but typically narrower and lower than a crest
Osteocyte: a mature bone cell
bicuspid valve: prevents regurgitation of blood back into left atrium
organic component: called the stoeoid. Composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and collagen fibers. Gives bone flexibility and tensile strength. (osteoclast, osteoblasts, osteocytes are also organic components of bone)
arterioles: the resistance vessels, diameter changes in response to local conditions. typically vasodilate when oxygen is low; vasoconstric by symp. stim. precede entrance to capillaries.
fossa: a fairly wide and smooth, shallow, concave surface
parallel: fibers run parallel to the line of pull; allow a greater range of motion
distal: term is only used when discussing limbs; structure is further away from median plane than another structure
perimysium: surrounds bundles of cells called fasciculi
microscopic anatomy of a muscle cell: muscle cell= muscle fiber= myofiber. satellite cells help repair damaged muscle fibers.; lie b/t endomysium and sarcolemma.
endomysium: invagination of the perimysium that separates and surrounds individual muscle cells
Lamellae: concentric rings of bony matrix, forming the circumference of the osteon unit.
integument: a.k.a. skin or cutaneous layer. it has two layers, the multilayered epithelial epidermis (avascular) and the fibrous dermis (vascular... especially the dermal papilae)
components of the osteon unit: Haversion (central) canal, Volkmann's (perforating) canal, Canaliculi, Lacunae, Lamelae, and Osteocyte
isometric: activation of the muscle, yet its length remains static. resistance = muscular force
at the elbow: 1. Pronation: the distal radius rotates over the ulna to move; palm facing forward --> palm facing back. 2. Supination: palm facing back --> palm facing forward.
1. H zone: zone where only myosin is found; shortens during contraction. area in H zone where no myosin heads exist called bare zone
sarcomere: the structural/functional unit of muscle; z-line to z-line
appendages of the skin: hair, nails, and exocrine glands. often have origin in epidermal tissue and extend into dermal tissue.
the Cardiac cycle: describes how blood moves through the chambers of the heart, in terms of the pressure created by myocardial contraction. rules to follow when thinking about phases of the cardiac cycle: 1. Blood always flows from high to low pressure. 2. The 4 valves are all one-way. 3. The phases are named for whats occurring in the Ventricles. 4. "Isovolumetric" means "same volume". No blood therefore can be flowing in or out of the ventricle -- the valves to the ventricle must be closed. 5. Valves on opposite sides of the same chamber can not be open at the same time.
tunica media: the thickest layer which made of elastic fibers and smooth muscle
action: describes the movement which results from concentric contraction of a particular muscle
tendons: are extensions of the perimysium and epimysium. attach muscles to the periosteum of bone. an aponeurosis is a tendon that extends into a broad flat layer
tunica interna: inner coat of arterial wall. simple squamous epithelium on lumen side. has a layer of elastic tissue called internal elastic membrane.
3rd degree burn: entire thickness of skin injured; usually requires skin grafting. burn area appears grayish-white, black, or bright red. nerve endings destroyed.
Melanocytes: Specialized pigment cells which are found only in the basale layer. They do not arise from the germinating keratinocytes. (20 keratinocytes: 1 melanocyte in the basale layer). Melanocytes secrete melanin pigment into the lower epidermal layers and the hair follicles. All people have the same number of melanocytes, regardless of skin color. However, the production of melanin by these melanocytes varies.
vitamin D regulation: occurs in stratum spinosum and basale layers. UV light --> cholesterol-like steroid --> vitamin D3
cardiac skeleton: electrically inert bundle of connective tissue that swirls around the heart valves in a figure 8 pattern. Provides structural support to heart; and a pseudo origin-insertion for contracting cardiac cells.
trochanter: a large, rough-to-the-touch projection
connective tissue: 1. All connective tissue arises from mesenchyme. 2. Range of vascularity... cartilage is avascular; bone is highly vascular. 3. Tissue is composed of large amounts of extracellular matrix... rather than tightly joined cells.
Cardiomegaly: heart enlargement. seen in long distance runners and wight lifters as a natural adaption to increased work load produced by regular exercise; not a problem in this case but used to think that exercise was bad for the heart. can also be caused by diseased states.
1st class lever: fulcrum (joint) b/t muscle (*effort) and weight (resistance)
I. Stimulation of the muscle by a motor neuron: A. depolarization spreads along the neuron's axon to the neuro muscular junction. B. depol. causes packets of acetylcholine to be released across the synaptic cleft. C. ACh binds to receptors on the sarcolemma motor end plate 1. causes depolarization of sarcolemma --> action potential
carcinoma: malignant cancer induced by sun-exposure. There are 2 types: basal cell and squamous cell carcinoma. Both rarely mestastize and are, typically survivable.
trochlea: smooth, rounded articulating area on humerus
QRS wave: ventricular depolarization
epicardium (visceral pericardium): thin transparent outer layer of the wall. made of serous tissue and mesothelium.
sarcoplasmic reticulum: a networks of tubules within muscle fiber that releases and takes-up Ca++
at the knee joint: 1. Flexion: lower legs move posteriorly rather than anteriorly (different than flexion at most other joints). 2. Extension: lower leg moves anteriorly rather than posteriorly.
depressions and openings: fossa, foramen, fissure, and sinus
P - wave: atrial depolarization (i.e. - the spread of an impulse from the SA node through the muscle of the 2 atria)
median plane: (also called the mid-saggital plane) divides the body into equal left and right halves
areas where tendons or ligaments may attach: trochanter, tuberosity, tubercle, crest, and line
concentric: activation of the muscle accompanied by actual shortening. resistance < muscular force
functions of the skin and its appendages: protection, body temperature regulation, cutaneous sensation, excretion/conservation, blood reservoir, vitamin D synthesis.
3rd class lever: the muscle is b/t the weight and the joint. least efficient for force production. gain in speed. most prevalent in body.
2 types of myofilaments: actin and myosin
capillaries: small diffusion distance, high exchange rate. average diameter - 8 um.
proximal: term is used only when discussing limbs; structure is closer to median plane than another structure
melanoma: most dangerous skin cancer; accounts for 5% of all skin cancers. Is cancer of melancytes. Arises in pimented areas, mestastizes rapidly.
actin: the thin filament; joins with troponin and tropomyosin to form the "thin filament complex".
Haversion (central) canal: longitudinal canal in the center of the osteon unit. Contains blood vessels and nerves.
SA node: compact mass of conducting cells located in right atrial wall. initiates each cardiac cycle and sets the basic pace for the heart rate. called the pacemaker.
heart: can be viewed as two distinct pumps. right side for pulmonary circulation (blood to lungs). left side for systemic circulation (blood to rest of body). each "pump" within the heart has 2 chambers, the atrium and the ventricle.
endocardium: a thin layer of endothelium overlaying a thin layer of connective tissue pierced by tiny blood vessels and bundles of smooth muscle. covers the valves of heart and line heart chambers.
spine: a sharp, pointed extension of bone, a type of process
marrow: both red and yellow, fills spaces b/t trabeculae
3. A band: area including myosin-actin overlap AND myosin only area does not shorten with contraction
Internodal tracts: tract along which impulse passes from the atrial node to the atrioventricular node
medial: structure is located closer to midline than another structure
stratum corneum: Consists of 20-30 layers of flattened cells. Cells are dead. The nucleus and cytoplasm have been replaced by keratin. This layer is responsible for differences in skin thickness; provides protection against abrasion.
adduction: movement towards the midline in the frontal plane
sarcolemma: just under the endomysium. the muscle cell's plasma membrane, encloses sarcoplasm. has many nuclei and mitochondria.
Papillary layer: the top 20% of the dermis. Layer immediately beneath the avascular epidermis. The dense network of blood vessels in this layer supplies the epidermis with nutrients and oxygen. The border of the epidermis and dermis is convoluted to increase the surface area across which exchange of nutrients and oxygen may occur. The folds created by the convolutions are called papillae. Free nerve endings and Meissner's Corpuscles are found in the dermal papillae, and sense pain and light touches.
epimysium: wraps around the entire muscle. extension of deep fascia. fibrous connective tissue.
facets: smooth, flat, oval-shaped surfaces
myosin: the thick filament; has a globular protein head with ATPase for interaction with actin.
5. Z line: anchors actin filaments, defines ends of sarcomere
neck: an area just inferior to the head, a narrow connection b/t the epiphysis and diaphysis, may be "surgical" or "anatomical"
path of blood through heart starting from right side pump: (right side pump) deoxygenated blood --> inferior and superior vena cava --> right atrium --> right ventricle --> pulmonary artery --> lungs (oxygenated blood) --> (left side pump) pulmonary vein --> left atrium --> left ventricle --> body --> (right side pump)
III. calcium interaction with actin: A. calcium binds to troponin. B. troponin latches onto tropomyosin. C. troponin pulls tropomyosin away from the myosin binding site on actin.
insertion: describes the point where the muscle joins in order to move a particular bone/set of bones.
aortic semilunar valve: prevents reflux of blood into the left ventricle
posterior/dorsal: structure is closer to the back of the body than another structure
trabeculae: small, needle-like pieces of bone that form a network
pericardial cavity: located b/t the parietal and visceral layers of the serous pericardium. Filled with a lubricating fluid that allows smooth movement when the heart moves with contractions.
inorganic component: consists of Hydroxyapatites, composed of mineral salts such as calcium phosphate. Gives bone its exceptional hardness and ability to resist compression.
stratum lucidum: A few layers of flattened cells that form, a bright, clear layer. Seen only in thick skin.
lateral: structure is farther away from median plane than another structure
burns: tissue damage inflicted by heat, electricity, radiation, or chemicals.
serous pericardium (deep): a. parietal layer: lines the inside of the fibrous pericardium at the heart base turns inferiorly to continue as visceral pericardium. b. viseral pericardium: same as epicardium
fibrous pericardium (superficial): a tough connective tissue that protects the heart and anchors it to surrounding structures. Also prevents heart from overfilling.
demi-facet: small facets
at the ankle: 1. Dorsiflexion: ankle flexes to move toes "up" towards the lower leg. 2. Plantar flexion: actually ankle extention, mimics action of standing on tiptoe. 3. INversion: also called supination, foot rolls to lateral side so that INside arch is visible (tip: can hold bowl of soup b/t SUPinated feet). 4. Eversion: also called pronation, foot rolls on toward median plane.
origin: Where we consider the muscle to begin. The origin usually remains stationary when the muscle contracts so that the insertion moves closer to the origin. The origin is more proximal than the insertion.
Purkinje fibers: conduction tracts that emerge from bundles, and turn into the myocardium
inferior/caudal: structure is closer to feet than another structure
extension: also occurs in the anterior/posterior plane. extension increases the angle b/t the articulating elements. extension reverses flexion. extension past anatomical position is called hyperextension.
sinus: on the skull exterior appears as a small discrete hole; a chamber within bone, filled with air
papillary muscle: seen in the ventricles; contract'n of these muscles prevents the tricuspid and bicuspid valves from "blowing" backwards into the atria as a result of the great pressure that can build in the ventricles. Do NOT forcibly close the valve.
Lacunae: means "little lake," small pockets situated between lamellae containing osteocytes of compact bone.
tuberosity: a smaller, rough-to-the-touch bump
general vessel structure: arteries and veins have...: tunica interna, tunica media, and tunica externa (adventitia). Capillaries have only thin walls of just tunica interna!
sweat glands: secrete a fluid which is 99% water. Fluid contains electrolytes (NaCl, K), organic nutrients, and waste products. Helps cool body and excrete waste/electrolytes. Can account for up to 12L of water loss/day through sensible perspiration and 0.5L/day through sensible perspiration.
cardiac muscle: involuntary. heart. striated, uni-nucleated, intercalated discs
erythema: reddened skin resulting from embarrassment, fever, or allergy.
CAD-coronary disease: (aka Coronary Heart Disease) heart muscle receives inadequate blood supply due to restricted flow in coronary arteries. leading cause of death in the US
chordar tendinae: connect the valves to the papillary muscle
areas where bones meet (or articulate): articular/auricular, head, neck, condyle, facets, demi-facet, trochlea, and spine
differences b/t arteries and veins: arteries have thicker tunica medias than veins, veins have "larger" lumens, veins have valves
pulmonary trunk: divides into right and left pulmonary arteries which carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
path of depolarization through heart: conduction of electrical impulses throughout heart tissue is facilitated by intercalated discs. These discs contain special cell junctions: 1. desmosomes - hold heart cells together so contract as one unit. 2. gap junctions - allow ions to flow b/t cells so the depolarization of cell membrane can be propagated.
epithelial tissue: 1. Cells are bound closely by cell junctions. There is little extracellular material b/t cells. 2. Tissue has polarity... one surface is exposed to the exterior, or a cavity, while another surface is attached to underlying tissues. 3. Tissue is attached to a basement membrane. 4. Avascular 5. Can be regenerated.
Reticular layer: the bottom 80% of the dermis. Composed of dense, irregular connective tissue -- a tissue type seen in areas subjected to tension from many directions. Bundles of collagen in this layer are also responsible for creating lines of cleavage. Contains Pacinian Corpuscles for sensing deep, constant touch and pressure.
planes: sagittal, median, transverse, and frontal
sebaceous glands: secrete an oily substance called sebum.
3 classes of articulations: synarthrotic (no movement), amphiarthrotic (little movement), and diarthrotic (free movement)
Palpitation: a fluttering of the heart, or abnormal rate of rhythm of the heart.
tubercle: a small-medium sized rounded bump, smoother surface than trochanter and tuberosity.
Diarthrotic (free movement): also referred to as synovial joints. bones are capped with articular cartilage, which secretes a synovial fluid that acts as a lubricant. articulating bones are surrounded by a joint cavity that is enclosed by an articular capsule. a synovial joint typically has many associated ligaments and tendons. A. gliding: intercarpel joints. B. hinge: elbow joint. C. pivot: b/t skull and 1st cevical vertebrae. D. ellipsoid: radiocarpal joint. E. saddle: carpometacarpal joint of thumb. F. ball and socket: shoulder and hip joints
tunica externa (adventitia): composed mostly of elastic and collagenous tissues
bone matrix: is formed from an organic component and an inorganic component
fissure: a long crack or valley
crest: a raised ridge of bone
myocardium: cardiac muscle tissue. involuntary, striated, and branched. left ventricle myocardium will be thicker than right ventricle because it generates a more forceful contraction.
organization of compact bone tissue: Structural units called the osteon unit or the Haversion system. The osteon unit is organized along the longitudinal axis of the bone.
Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG): measures the electrochemical activity of the heart. Electrodes measure voltage and current changes in the heart. used to detect abnormalities.
Capillary Beds: not always "open". pre-capillary sphincters can close off a capillary bed, to shunt blood elsewhere. when sphincters are closed blood flows from an arteriole --> metarteriole --> venule.
anatomical position: in this position the arms are held out to the sides of the body with the palms facing forward
4. M line: fine protein threads in middle of H zone, which connect middle portions of the myosin filaments
Bundle of Bachmann: connects the right atrium to the left atrium to conduct the impulse
foramen: a hole
Risk factors in Heart Disease: high cholesterol, high blood pressure, cigarette smoking, obesity, lack of regular exercise, diabetes mellitus, genetic predisposition.
flexion: in general, occurs in the anterior/posterior plane. flexion reduces the angle b/t the articulating elements
2nd degree burn: epidermis and upper dermis injured; heals within 3-4 weeks. localized swelling, redness, pain, and blisters.
tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural
exocrine glands: sweat glands and sebaceous glands
heart wall (3 parts, listed superficial to deep): epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium
of the shoulder girdle: 1. Elevation: clavicle and scapula move superiorly. i.e. shrugging. 2. Depression: reversal of elevation, clavicle and scapula move inferiorly. 3. Protraction: shoulder blades move away from spine, same as abduction. 4. Retraction: shoulder blades move toward the spine, same as adduction. 5. Upward rotation: the inferior angle of the shoulder blades rotates around an imaginary axis, so that the glenoid fossa is positioned more superiorly. 6. Downward rotation: reversal of upward rotation.
anatomical directions: superior, inferior, anterior/ventral, posterior/dorsal, proximal, distal, medial, lateral, superficial, and deep
heart beat: = systole (hrt contraction) and diastole (hrt relaxation) of both the atria and ventricles
smooth muscle: involuntary. walls of hollow viscera, blood vessel walls. non-striated, uni-nucleated.
T-tubule (the transverse tubule): an invagination of the sarcolemma. transmits depolarization from NueroMuscular Junctions to the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
hair: found everywhere on skin except sides and soles of feet, palms and fingertips of hands, lips, and parts of the external genitalia. !. Hair production occurs in the hair follicle. The hair follicle is located in the dermis but, epithelial cells line the follicle, and divide to form a hair shaft. Cells in the shaft center, and hard keratin at the shaft's edge. 2. Arrector Pili Muscles
T wave: ventricular repolarization. atrial repolarization can not be seen on an EKG because the QRS wave is so large that it drowns out any possible measurement of and activity.
Volkmann's (perforating) canal: lies perpendicular to longitudinal axis of osteon. Contains blood vessels and nerves.
elevations and projections: process and ramus
ramus: an extension of bone that is typically at an angle to the "body" of the bone.
P.M. (prime mover): A prime mover is a muscle that is primarily responsible for performing a listed movement
Keratinocytes: Found throughout the epidermis; produce keratin as pushed up to the superficial layers of the epidermis. Takes approximately 35-40 days for kerantinocytes to move from the basle layer to the coreum layer, and shed
eccentric: activation of the muscle yet its length is increasing. resistance > muscular force
transverse plane: (also called cross or horizontal plane) separates the body into upper and lower sections, but cross or transverse sections refer to perpendicular sections of the body or body parts and are not necessarily horizontal
2. I band: area where only actin exists; shortens during contraction
deep: structure is farther away from the surface of the body than another structure
stratum granulosum: Has granules containing keratohyalin. 3-5 cell layers thick.
stratum basale: The germinating layer; one cell layer thick. Germinating cells divide in this layer. Daughter cells are pushed up to form the more superficial layers.
IV. calcium/ ATP interaction with myosin: A. calcium activates the ATPase enzyme on myosin head B. ATPase splits ATP into ADP and P 1. ADP and P --> myosin "cocks head" and binds to actin 2. myosin head pulls actin = power stroke. C. calcium is removed from the sarcoplasm by calsequestrin. D. ATPase is activated, therefore ATP is not split 1. ATP --> myosin detached from actin.
antagonist: the prime mover for an action which is the opposite of the movement performed by the prime mover under consideration
coronary sinus: located in the right atrium; drains the blood back out of the walls of the heart.
anterior/ventral: structure is closer to the front of the body than another structure
muscle: 3 basic types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
right and left pulmonary veins: carry oxygenated blood back to the left atrium from the lungs
Long bone structure: a long shaft, called the diaphysis. expanded areas at each end of shape, called epiphysis.
process: a structure that "sticks out" -- like a pan handle
bone shapes: long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid, and sutural.
synergists: muscles which assist the prime mover
2nd class lever: weight b/t muscle and joint
muscle tissue: 1. Vascular. 2. Innervated. 3. Contains contractile proteins that allow movement.
superficial: structure is closer to the surface of the body than another structure
muscular arteries: medium sized arteries. diameter of lumen controlled by smooth muscle.
elastic arteries: arteries containing a lot of elastic tissue; large diameters-- 2.5 cm. typically close to heart, absorb large pressure of blood ejected from the left ventricle. Windkessel effect: aorta.
coronary vessels: supply heart muscle with oxygenated blood. Arteries lie in the epicardium and branch inward. Network of capillaries branch from arteries and return blood to coronary veins. The coronary vessels become compressed during heart contraction and blood flow to the heart is decreased at this point.
2 main types of cells in epidermis: Keratinocytes and Melanocytes
pennate: fibers attach at an angle, allowing more fibers, and thus greater strength for the muscle as a whole. Note that a single muscle fiber of a pennate muscle has decreased strength however relative to a parallel muscle. Also has a decreased range of motion relative to a parallel muscle.
at the shoulder joint: 1. Medial rotation/ internal rotation: the anterior portion of the arm rotates inward towards the trunk of the body. 2. Lateral rotation/ external rotation: the anterior portion of the arm rotates outward away from the trunk of the body.
Canaliculi: small hair-like canals extending from the central canal. Allow for diffusion of nutrients, waste products, hormones, etc. to lacunae.

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