Bio 309D

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Flowchart of chemoreceptor reflex (identify components of a reflex pathway.): Increase in CO2 or H+ in plasma (STIMULUS) Peripheral or Carotid/Aortic chemoreceptor or Medullary chemoreceptor (RECEPTOR) Medulla (RESPIRATORY CONTROL CENTER) Somatic Motor Neurons (EFFERENT) Diaphragm/Intercostals to contract (EFFECTOR) Increase volume/Decrease Pressure (EFFECT)
Describe Spermatogenesis: This is the process by which male spermatogonia develop into mature spermatozoa. It occurs in the seminiferous tubules (sperm incubator). This process requires that sperm remain embedded in the sustaining cells (these sustaining cells secrete glycogen, have tight junctions and serve as a "blood testes barrier").
Basic Functions of the Bronchioles: Conduct air to alveoli; adjust airflow in lungs. Made up of all smooth muscle, no cartilage.
The starter molecule of glycolysis is...: glucose
What are the effects of Asthma?: Asthma is constriction of the bronchial airway. Treatment = Bronchodilator
Examples of Steroid hormones are...: Cortisol and aldosterone (adrenal cortex) and estrogen, progesterone and testosterone (gonads)
Prostate Gland: Gland that produces secretions that make sperm mobile and the counteract the acidity of the female reproductive tract
Scrotum: Is the skin that holds the testes
Some endocrine reflexes operate by...: Negative feedback!
Testis: Produces sperm and testosterone
The Citric Acid Cycle occurs in the...: Mitochondrion
Up/Down Regulate Example:: When the concentration of insulin INCREASES (up) in the body, it DECREASES glucose (down) in the blood
What are the role of Interstitial Cells?: To produce Androgens such as Testosterone
Describe connection between hypothalamus and anterior and posterior pituitary glands...: The Posterior pituitary gland is a down growth from the Hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland is connected to the hypothalamus by a portal system.
Ovary: Produces eggs and the hormone estrogen and progesterone
In the Citric Acid Cycle, the starter molecule is...: Acetyl CoA
Basic Functions of the Lungs: Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and air.
Which Hormones are independent of the Hypothalamus?: Insulin, glucagon and parathyroid hormones
Epididymus: Is the location of sperm storage and maturation
Endocrine Glands: Are glands that are made up of secretory cells that release their products, called hormones, into the fluid just outside the cells. Endocrine glands DO NOT secrete thier products into ducts
Vagina: Receives penis during intercourse and serves as a birth canal
Fallopian Tubes/Oviduct: Transport ovulated egg/embryo from ovary to uterus
Glycolisis does not require...: Oxygen
What is the mechanism in which hormonal contraceptives work?: Hormonal contraceptives work via negative feedback. They mimic the pattern of hormones normally produced by the ovaries.
Target Cell: Any cell with a receptor. They have protein molecules that recognize and bind to specific hormones.
Parathyroid Hormone: Increases blood levels of calcium (stimulates breakdown of bone and rate at which calcium is removed from urine and absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract)
Steroid Hormones: These are hormones that are made from cholesterol and are therefore lipid soluble. The hormones diffuse into the cell (simple diffusion). They have intracellular receptors (target cells) and they also move into the nucleus of the cell and affect gene expression.
Describe the Steps of Fertilization: FERTILIZATION occurs: the union of a sperm and an egg (involves acrosomal reaction which digests cell junctions) => Cortical Reaction occurs inside egg and this reaction prevents poly-sperming of egg (it increases calcium around egg) => **PRE-EMBRYONIC STAGE: after fertilization, there is cleavage ;p: this is early cell division which leads to the formation of blastocysts (2100 cells) => IMPLANTATION occurs: blastocysts partially digests the endometrium => PLACENTATION: formation of a pool of blood from the mother and the zygote =>** EMBRYONIC STAGE: this begins with Gastrulation (a MAJOR event): is the formation of three primary "germ" layers (all organ systems are present at eight weeks)... as baby grows, a signal from the baby upregulates oxytocin => **BIRTH POST-NATAL EVENTS: as oxytocin is released, smooth muscle contractions begin and labor begins (Oxytocin is released from the posterior pituitary gland) => Baby is born!! The anterior pituitary gland releases prolactin and this stimulates milk production.
Vas Deferens: Conducts Sperm from Epididymus to urethra
The Electron Transport Chain occurs in the..: inner membrane of the mitochondrion
What is Vital Capacity?: Maximum amount of air that can be voluntarily moved into or out of the respiratory system with one breath
Describe implantation and placenta formation.: Implantation involves the blastocyst digesting part of the wall of the endometrium which allows it to burrow and seal itself. Blood pools and finger like projections form on outer embryonic membrane which eventually forms the placenta.
Flowchart the basic Hypothalamic Control Pathway for Female Reproduction: GnRH (Pulsatile Release) stimulates the release of-> FSH & LH, together they work on -> Follicle cells which produce Inhibin and Estrogens.
Flowchart of quiet expiration.: Signal from Medulla Oblongata ceases Muscles and Diaphragm relax The volume of the thoracic cage decreases which raises pressure thus air flows out Air goes out until equal to atmospheric pressure.
Describe Oogenesis: This is the process of making an oogonium into an oocyte--(ready to be fertilized). It includes the creation of an ovum (egg cell) in females. Ovaries develop from biopotential gonads. Primary oocytes are present in great numbers before birth and diminish over time. In addition, Also, meiosis I occurs before puberty. At puberty, the selected oocyte finishes I and goes into meiosis II. However, it remains arrested in meiosis II unless fertilization occurs. Thus, it's discontinuous.
What is role of HCG that is secreted by the blastocyst and the placenta?: HCG maintains the corpus luteum. It also is the hormone that is detected by over the counter pregnancy tests.
Seminal Vesicle: Produces secretions that make up most of the volume of semen
What is the role of Prolactin milk production?: It stimulates the mammory glands to produce milk.
Hormone release is MOSTLY regulated by...: Pituitary Gland
In the Electron Transport Chain, oxygens role is...: to accept electrons and therefore, respiration continues. Its role is VERY CRITICAL in the Electron Transport Chain
Glucagon: Increases blood glucose level (prompts liver to increase conversion of glycogen to glucose and formation of glucose from fatty and amino acids)
Steroid hormones are produced in the...: Adrenal glands (cortex) and in the male and female gonads
Hormones: are the chemical messengers of the endocrine system. They are any chemical that is released into the plasma. They have a low concentration and they act on a distant target.
Explain Pneumothorax: Air in the pleural cavity due to external puncture or internal rupture.
The pituitary gland is divided into two...: The anterior and posterior lobes
the products of the Electron Transport Chain are...: ATP, NADH, FADH2
The starter molecules for the transition reaction are the...: pyruvates from glycolisis
Half Life: Rate of breakdown in the body.
Which hormones are released by the posterior pituitary gland??: Anti-Diuretic Hormone/ADH (promotes water absorption by kidneys for urination) and Oxytocin (which stimulates milk ejection from the breast and stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth).
In the transition reaction CoEnzyme A reacts with...: pyruvates and fatty acids to make acetyl CoA
Thyroid synthesis requires...: IODINE
Muscles of quiet inspiration.: 1.Diaphragm. 2. Intercostals
What is the role of the Pleural Cavity in keeping lungs distended?: The Pleural Cavity surrounds lungs and has subatmospheric pressure. If this pressure is interrupted, your lungs will collapse.
Exocrine Glands: These glands secrete their products into ducts that empty either onto the body surface, into the spaces within organs, or into a body cavity.
Peptide Hormones have a more _____ _____ because...: RAPID EFFECT... It sets in motion an action compared to a steroid that has to create a protein
What is the type of epithelium forming the walls of alveoli?: Simple Squamous - exchange epithelium
What is the role of oxytocin in labor and milk letdown?: Oxytocin is the chemical that enduces labor. It also signals the milk to be "let down" into the breast for nursing.
The products of glycolysis are..: ATP and NADH
Transition reaction occur with in the...: Mitochondrion
The effects of Cortisol include:: The increase of plasma glucose and it enables stress response. Cortisol is also administered to reduce inflammation and counter allergic reactions
What is the role of Sustaining Cells?: Production of Inhibin & Binding Protein
The ending molecule for glycolisis is...: 2 pyruvates
Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions in the body or what cells do with O2, use nutrients as energy
There is no major role of ______ in the Transition Reaction: Oxygen!
Basic functions of the Bronchi: Conduct air from the trachea to each lung. C-Shaped cartilage begins to dissipate the further you go down each bronchi.
What is Tubal Ligation?: It is the procedure of blocking the oviducts to prevent the sperm and the egg from meeting.
What are the effects of Emphysema and Chronic Bronchitis?: 1. 90% of the time it is caused by cigarettes. It triggers the immune system which causes a decrease in collagen thus causing a decrease in surface area. Gas exchange decreases as well. 2. Decreases Elastin which decreases recoil of the lungs which can cause weezing.
Basic functions of the Larynx: 1. Direct traffic via the epiglottis. 2. Voice Production
What is Tidal Volume?: Volume of air that moves in a single inspiration or expiration
What is Spirometry?: (meaning the measuring of breath) is the most common of the Pulmonary Function Tests (PFTs), measuring lung function, specifically the measurement of the amount (volume) and/or speed (flow) of air that can be inhaled and exhaled.
Pathway for Thyroid Hormone Release (thyroxine):: Hypothalamus ==> Anterior Pituitary-TSH ==> Thyroid Gland ==> Thyroid Hormones ==> Controls Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
In transition reaction, one carbon (in the form of CO2) is...: removed from pyruvate
What are factors that affect gas diffusion across alveolar walls?: 1. Concentration Gradient within alveoli. (usually not a problem) 2. Loss of surface area (ex: emphysema results in the breakdown of elastin/collagen) 3. Membrane Thickness ( Increase in diffusion distance) 4. Change in composition of the membrane.
What is the function of the Thyroid Hormone??: This hormone regulates metabolism and heat production and promotes normal development and functioning of the: nervous, muscular, skeletal and reproductive systems.
What occurs in the Post-Natal Stage?: The release of Oxytocin causes smooth muscle contractions and the baby is delivered. Prolactin is also released and this causes milk production.
Flowchart of quiet inspiration.: Pacemakers fire w/in the Medulla Oblongata (spontaneously & rhythmically) => Sematic motor neurons tell the diaphragm and intercostals to contract => The volume of the thoracic cage increases which lowers pressure thus air flows in => When pressure in lungs is equal to atmospheric pressure, inspiration ends.
Pathway for the release (or inhibition of anterior pituitary- related hormones): Example: Adrenal Cortex => Cortisol: Hypothalamus ==> Anterior Pituitary-ATCH ==> Adrenal cortex ==> Cortisol
Muscles used in forced expiration.: 1. Abdominals. 2. Internal Intercostals
The Anterior Pituitary Gland regulates the release of...: Thyroid hormones, sex hormones and cortisol
Basic functions of the Nasal Cavity: 1. Filter in Clean Air. 2. Mucus Escalator. 3. Conditions the incoming air by humidifying and warming it.
the starter molecules of the Electron Transport Chain are...: NADH AND FADH2
Do Peptide hormones have a long or short effect?: SHORT!!
Uterus: Receives and nourishes embryo
Basic functions of the Pharynx (Throat): Common passageway for air, food, drink.
What occurs in the Pre-Embryonic Stage?: Fertilization, Acrosomal and Cortical Reaction, Cleavage, Implantation and Placentation
the ending molecules of the transition reaction are...: Acetyl CoA and 2 NADH
The ending molecules of the Citric Acid are...: 2 molecules of ATP and several molecules of NADH and FADH2 per molecule of glucose
What is Total Lung Capacity?: Vital capacity + residual volume
Flowchart for the Hypothalamic control pathway for Male Reproduction: Hypthalamus produces GnRH -> Anterior Pituitary secretes FSH & LH -> FSH goes to the sustaining cells which produce Inhibin and Binding Protein. -> LH goes to the interstitial cells which produce Testosterone -> The Testosterone and Binding Protein go to the receptors of the Spermatocytes -> Maturation into Spermatozoa.
What is Gastrulation?: This is a crucial time in the development of multicellular animals. During this process, several important things are accomplished: -The three primary germ layers are established, -The basic body plan is established and -As a result of the movements of gastrulation, cells are brought into new positions, allowing them to interact with cells that were initially not near them
What is a vasectomy?: It is the simple procedure of cutting the vas deferens in order to prevent sperm from leaving the body.
What are the locations of the Chemoreceptors and the stimuli to which they respond?: They are located in the carotid artery/aortic area and in the medulla. They respond mainly to CO2
What is the path of Sperm from seminferous tubules to exterior?: Seminferous Tubule -> Epididymis -> Vas Deferens -> Urethra
Insulin: Decreases blood glucose level (stimulates transport of glucose into cells, inhibits breakdown of glycogen to glucose, prevents conversion of fatty and amino acids to glucose)
Effects of Respiratory Distress Syndromes: ARDS - Decrease in surfactant production or overwhelming amount of surfactant. NRDS - Surfactant not produced.
The products of the Citric Acid Cycle are...: CO2, NADH, FADH2, ATP
Posterior pituitary gland is a...: DOWN GROWTH of the hypothalamus and is neural
Peptide Hormones: These are hormones made from amino acids and are therefore water soluble. These hormones CAN NOT pass through the cell membrane; they have to bind to cell a membrane receptor (first messenger) and this binding activates the enzyme response for producing CAMP (the second messenger) from ATP.
What occurs in the Embryonic Stage?: Gastrulation, formation of Body organs and much later (near delivery time), the release of oxytocin
Basic Functions of the Trachea: The main airway; conducts air from larynx to bronchi. Surrounded by C- Shaped cartilage for protection.
Anterior Pituitary Gland is...: CONNECTED to the hypothalamus by a portal system and is thus a true endocrine gland
Penis: Delivers sperm to female reproductive tract
The ending molecules in the Electron Transport Chain are...: 32 ATP and H2O
What is Residual Volume?: Volume of air left in respiratory system after maximum expiration
Cervix: Opening of the Uterus
Pituitary Gland hormone release is controlled by...: Hypothalamus
Basic Functions of the Alveoli: 1. Cells secrete surfactant which reduces surface tension from water molecules in alveoli which prevents alveolar collapse. 2. Provides immense surface area for gas exchange. (There is elastin in walls of Alveoli)
What happens during negative feedback in the endocrine reflex system?: Some endocrine glands are sensitive to the particular condition they regulate rather than to the level of hormone they produce. For example, the pancreas secretes the hormone insulin in response to high levels of glucose in the blood. Insulin prompts the liver to store glucose, which causes the blood level of glucose to decline. **The pancreas senses the low glucose in the blood and stops secreting insulin.
In the process of glycolysis, glycerol is used in..: the intermediate phases
Glycolysis takes place in the...: cytoplasm
The products of the transition reaction are..: Co2, NADH

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