Info. for Lab Pract. 1
Terms
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- anatomical position
- standard position; body erect, feet apart, head/toes forward, arms at sides with palms forward
- axial
- relating to head, neck, and trunk, axis of body
- appendicular
- relating to limbs and their attachments to the axis
- abdominal
- pertaining to the anterior body trunk region inferior to the ribs
- acromial
- pertaining to the point of the shoulder
- antebrachial
- pertaining to the forearm
- antecubital
- pertaining to the anterior surface of the elbow
- axillary
- pertaining to the armpit
- brachial
- pertaining to the arm
- buccal
- pertaining to the cheek
- carpal
- pertaining to the wrist
- cervical
- pertaining to the neck region
- coxal
- pertaining to the hip
- crural
- pertaining to the leg
- digital
- pertaining to the fingers or toes
- femoral
- pertaining to the forehead
- hallux
- pertaining to the big toe
- inguinal
- pertaining to the groin
- mammary
- pertaining to the breast
- mental
- pertaining to the chin
- nasal
- pertaining to the nose
- oral
- pertaining to the mouth
- orbital
- pertaining to the bony eye socket (orbit)
- palmar
- pertaining to the palm of the hand
- patellar
- pertaining to the anterior knee (kneecap) region
- pedal
- pertaining to the foot
- pelvic
- pertaining to the pelvis region
- fibular (peroneal)
- pertaining to the side of the leg
- pollex
- pertaining to the thumb
- pubic
- pertaining to the genital region
- sternal
- pertaining to the region of the breastbone
- tarsal
- pertaining to the ankle
- thoracic
- pertaining to the chest
- umbilical
- pertaining to the navel
- calcaneal
- pertaining to the heel of the foot
- cephalic
- pertaining to the head
- dorsum
- pertaining to the back
- gluteal
- pertaining to the buttocks
- lumbar
- pertaining to the area of the back between the ribs and hips; the loin
- manus
- pertaining to the hand
- occipital
- pertaining to the posterior aspect of the head or base of the skull
- olecranal
- pertaining to the posterior aspect of the elbow
- otic
- pertaining to the ear
- perineal
- pertaining to the region between the anus and external genitalia
- plantar
- pertaining to the sole of the foot
- popliteal
- pertaining to the back of the knee
- sacral
- pertaining to the region between the hips (overlying the sacrum)
- scapular
- pertaining to the scapula or shoulder blade area
- sural
- pertaining to the calf or posterior surface of the leg
- vertebral
- pertaining to the area of the spinal column
- superior/inferior
- towards the head / away from head
- anterior/posterior
- proceeds 1st in locomotion / follows anterior in locomotion
- medial/lateral
- towards the middle / towards the side
- cephalad (cranial)/caudal
- used mainly with animals: towards head / towards tail
- dorsal/ventral
- used mainly with animals: towards the back / towards the belly
- proximal/distal
- close to sight of attachment / away from sight of attachment
- superficial (external)/deep (internal)
- towards the surface / away from surface
- sagittal plane
- divides body into right and left (could be midsagittal or parasagittal)
- frontal plane
- divides body into front and back
- transverse plane
- divides the body into superior and inferior parts (sections are commonly called cross sections)
- dorsal cavity
- subdivided into cranial and vertebral cavities; contains brain enclosed within the skull, spinal cord/vertebral column
- ventral body cavity
- subdivided into thoracic (superior), abdominopelvic (inferior to diaphragm), and pelvic cavities; contains heart/lungs, stomach/intestines/liver/other organs, and reproductive organs/bladder/rectum
- serosa (serosa membrane)
- moist membrane found in closed ventral body cavities
- parietal serosa
- part of double-layered membrane that lines the walls of the ventral body cavity
- visceral serosa
- part of the double-layered membrane that lines the outer surfaces of organs within the ventral body cavity
- peritoneum
- serosa lining the abdominal cavity and covering its organs
- pleura
- serosa enclosing the lungs
- pericardium
- serosa around the heart
- umbilical region
- centermost region; includes umbilicus
- epigastric region
- immediately superior to the umbilical region; overlies most of the stomach
- hypogastric (pubic) region
- immediately inferior to the umbilical region; encompasses the pubic area
- iliac (inguinal) regions
- lateral to the hypogastric region and overlying the superior parts of the hip bones
- lumbar regions
- between the ribs and the flaring portiongs of the hip bones; lateral to the umbilical region
- hypochondriac regions
- flanking the epigastric region laterally and overlying the lower ribs
- oral cavity
- mouth; contains tounge and teeth; continuous with rest of digestive tube, which opens to the exterior at the anus
- nasal cavity
- within and posterior to the nose; part of the passages of the respiratory system
- orbital cavities
- orbits in the skull house the eyes and present them in an anterior position
- middle ear cavities
- lies just medial to ear drum and carved into the skull; contains tiny bones that transmit sound vibs. to the organ of hearing in the inner ears
- synovial cavities
- joint cavities; enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround the freely movable joints of the body, such as those between vertebrae and knee/hip joints
- 4 primary tissue types
- epithelium, connective, nervous, muscle
- epithelial tissue (epithelium)
- covers surfaces; covers the external body surface, lines its cavities and tubules, generally marks off "insides" from outsides; glands are classified as epithelium. FUNCTIONS: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception
- epithelia are classified to 2 criteria
- arrangement or relative number of layers and cell shape
- basement membrane
- extracellular material consisting of a basal lamina secreted by epithelial cells and a reticular lamina secreted by underlying connective tissue cells
- simple epithelia
- one-layer attached to basement membrane
- stratified epithelia
- two or more layers of cells
- squamous
- scale-like
- cuboidal
- cube-like
- columnar
- column-shaped
- pseudostratified epithelium
- actually simple columnar, but gives false appearance of being stratified because cells vary in height and nuclei lie at different levels above the basement membrane; often ciliated
- transitional epithelium
- peculiar stratified squamous epithelium formed of rounded, "plump" cells w/ ability to slide over one another to allow organ to be stretched; found only in urinary system organs subjected to periodic distension (e.g. bladder)
- endocrine glands
- made from epithelial cells; lose their surface connections (duct) as they develop; secretions (HORMONES) extrude into blood stream or lymphatic vessels that weave through the glands
- exocrine glands
- retain ducts; sections empty through these ducts to an epithelial surface (e.g. sweat/oil glands, liver, pancreas); both external and internal
- simple squamous epithelium
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DESCRIPTION: single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped central neclei and sparse cytoplasm; simplest of epithelia
FUNCTION: allows passage of material by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important; secretes lubricating substances in serosae
LOCATION: kidney glomeruli, air sacs of lungs, lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels; lining of ventral body cavity (serosae) - simple columnar epithelium
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DESCRIPTION: single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear cilia; layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells)
FUNCTION: absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action
LOCATION: nonciliated type lines most of the digestive tract (stomach to anal canal), gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some glands; ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus - stratified squamous epithelium
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DESCRIPTION: thick membrane composed of several cell layers; basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and metabolically active; surface cells are flattened (squamous); in the keratinized type, the surface cells are full of keratin and dead; basal cells are active in mitosis and produce the cells of the more superficial layers
FUNCTION: protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion
LOCATION: nonkeratinized type forms the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina; keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane - connective tissue
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found in all parts of the body as discrete structures or as part of various body organs; MOST ABUNDANT and WIDELY DISTRIBUTED
FUNCTION: protect, support, binding together other tissues of the body, repair of all body tissues
TYPES: bone/osseous, dense (ligaments and tendons), areolar, adipose, hematopoietic, scar
CHARACTERISTICS: rich supply of blood vessels (w/ few exceptions - cartilages, tendons, and ligaments), composed of many types of cells, and composed of a great deal of noncellular, nonliving material (matrix) between the cells of the tissue - extracellular matrix
-
produced by the cells then extruded; primarily responsible for strength assoc. w/ conn. tissue, but there is variation (e.g. adipose tissue has lots of cells, bone and cartilage have larger amounts of matrix)
2 components: ground substances and fibers - ground substance
- composed of interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins, and proteogylcans; may be liquid, semisolid, gel-like, or very hard; functions as a molecular sieve (medium) through which nutrients and dissolved substs. can diffuse b/t the blood capillaries and the cells
- matrix fibers
- provide support; includes collagen (white - MOST ABUNDANT), elastic (yellow), and reticular (fine collagen); hinders diffusion; makes ground substs. less pliable
- areolar connective tissue
- soft packaging material that cushins and protects body organs; considered the model or prototype of the connective tissues; contain all 3 varieties of fibers
- 4 types of adult connective tissue
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all have large amounts of matrix:
1. connective tissue proper (areolar, adipose, reticular, and dense connective tissues)
2. cartilage
3. bone
4. blood
-all derive from embryonic tissue called mesenchyme - connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, adipose
-
DESCRIPTION: matrix as in areolar, but very sparse; closely packed adipocytes, or fat cells, have nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplets
FUNCTION: provides reserve food fuel; insulates against heat loss; supports and protects organs
LOCATION: under skin; around kidneys and eyeballs; within abdomen; in breasts - cartilage: hyaline
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DESCRIPTION: amorphous but firm matrix; collagen fibers form an imperceptible network; chondroblasts produce the matrix and when mature (chondrocytes) lie in lacunae
LOCATION: forms most of the embryonic skeleton; covers ends of long bones in joint cavities; forms costal cartilages of the ribs; cartilages of the nose, trachea, and larynx - cartilage: fibrocartilage
-
DESCRIPTION: matrix similar to but less firm than that in hyaline cartilage; thick collagen fibers predominate
FUNCTION: tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock
LOCATION: intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint - bone (osseous tissue)
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DESCRIPTION: hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae; very well vascularized
FUNCTION: bone supports and protects (by enclosing); provides levers for the muscles to act on; stores calcium and other minerals and fat; marrow inside bones is the site for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
LOCATION: bones - blood (tissue)
-
DESCRIPTION: red and white blood cells in a fluid matrix (plasma)
FUNCTION: transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes and other substances
LOCATION: contained within blood vessels - muscle tissue
- highly specialized to contract and produces most types of body movement; cells tend to be enlongated; 3 types (skeletal, cardiac, smooth)
- skeletal muscle
-
"meat" or flesh of body; DESCRIPTION: long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells; obvious striations
FUNCTION: voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression; voluntary control
LOCATION: in skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin - cardiac muscle
-
DESCRIPTION: branching, striated, generally uninucleate cells that fit together at specialized junctions (intercalated discs - allows c.m. to act as a unit)
FUNCTION: as it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control
LOCATION: the walls of the heart - smooth muscle (visceral muscle)
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DESCRIPTION: spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; NO striations; cells arranged closely to form sheets
FUNCTION: propels substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary control
LOCATION: mostly in the walls of hollow organs (digestive and urinary tract organs, uterus, blood vessels) - nervous tissue
- composed of two major cell populations (neuroglia and neurons); those cells that are most often association with nervous system functioning
- neuroglia
- 1 of 2 cell populations in nervous tissue; special supporting cells that protect, support, and insulate the more delicate neurons
- neurons
- 1 of 2 major cell populations of nervous tissue; highly specialized to receive stimuli (irritability) and to conduct waves of excitation, or impulses, to all parts of the body (conductivity); structure contains nucleus-containing cell body with cytoplasm drawn out into long extensions (cell processes) which allows a single neuron to conduct an impulse over relatively long distances
- 2 regions of the skin
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1. superficial epidermis - composed of epithelium
2. dermis - an underlying connective tissue
-the layers are firmly "cemented" together along an undulating border - epidermis
- the avascular epidermis is a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium consisting of 4 distinct cell types (keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans' cells, merkel cells) and 4-5 distinct layers (but know only two: stratum basale and stratum corneum)
- keratinocytes (keratin cells)
- MOST ABUNDANT epidermal cells; function mainly to produce keratin fibrils (keratin is a fibrous protein that gives the epidermis its durability and protective capabilities); tightly connected to each other by desmosomes
- melanocytes
- spidery black cells that produce the brown-to-black pigment called melanin; melanin provides a protective pigment umbrella over the nuclei of the cells in the deeper epidermal layers (which shields genetic material from damaging effects of UV); [] of melanin in one spot is called a freckle
- langerhans' cells
- aka epidermal dendritic cells; phagocytic cells (macrophages) play a role in immunity
- merkel cells
- occasional spiky hemispheres that, in conjunction with sensory nerve endings, form sensitive touch receptors called Merkel discs, located at the epidermal-dermal junction
- stratum basale (basal layer)
- single row of cells immediately adjacent to the dermis; cells constantly undergoing mitotic cell division to produce millions of new cells daily, hence its alternate name stratum germinativum; 10-20% of the cells are melanocytes which thread their processes through this and the adjacent layers of keratinocytes
- stratum corneum (horny layer)
- outermost epidermal layer; consists of 20-30 cell layers; accounts for the bulk of the epidermal thickness; cells are dead and their flattened scalelike remnants are fully keratinized; constantly rubbing off and being replaced by division of deeper cells
- dermis
- dense, irregular connective tissue w/ 2 regions (papillary and reticular areas); varies in thickness; also contains fibroblasts, adipose cells, various types of macrophages, and other cell types; abundant dermal blood supply allows skin to play role in regulation of body temp; also richly provided with lymphatic vessels and nerve supply
- papillary layer
- more superficial dermal region composed of areolar connective tissue; very uneven w/ fingerlike projections from its superior surface (dermal papillae - which attach it to the epidermis); produce fingerprints (unique patterns of epidermal ridges); abundant capillary networks furnish nutrients for the epidermal layers and allow heat to radiate to the skin surface; pain and touch receptors (meissner;s corpuscles) are found here; heavily invested with collagenic and elastic fibers
- reticular layer
- deepest skin layer; composed of dense irregular connective tissue and contains many arteries and veins, sweat and sebaceous glands, and pressure receptors (Pacinian corpuscles); heavily invested with collagenic and elastic fibers
- skin color
- result of amount of melanin, carotene, and degree of oxygenation of the blood; may be an importance diagnostic tool
- erythema (diagnosis from skin color)
- red skin color - caused by 1st degree burns, increased blood pressure
- anemia (diagnosis from skin color)
- pale color
- hypoxia (diagnosis from skin color)
- cyanotic (blue)
- hepatitis/jaundice (diagnosis from skin color)
- orange color
- addison's disease
- bronzing of the skin
- 1st degree burns
- epidermis (e.g. sunburn)
- 2nd degree burns
- extends into dermis (e.g. blisters)
- 3rd degree burns
- both layers of the skin are destroyed
- accessory organs of skin
- cutaneous glands, hair, nails (all derivatives of the epidermis); reside in the dermis; originate from the stratum basale and grown downward into the deeper skin regions
- nails
- hornlike derivatives of the epidermis
- body of the nail
- visible attached portion
- free edge of the nail
- portion of nail that grows out away from the body
- root of the nail
- part that is embedded in the skin and adheres to an epithelial nail bed
- nail folds
- skin folds that overlap the borders of the nail
- eponychium
- thick proximal nail fold commonly called the cuticle
- nail bed
- extension of the stratum basale beneath the nail
- nail matrix
- the thickened proximal part of the nail bed containing germinal cells responsible for nail growth; as matrix produces nail cells, they become heavily keratinized and die; nails, like hairs, are mostly nonliving material
- lunula of the nail
- proximal region of the thickened nail matrix which appears as a white crescent; nails are transparent and nearly colorless everywhere else but appear pink because of blood supply in the underlying dermis
- hair
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found over entire body surface except thick-skinned areas, parts of external genitalia, nipples, and the lips; consists of a medulla (central region surrounded first by the cortex and then by a protective cuticle); color is a manifestation of the amount and kind of melanin pigment w/in the hair cortex;
-root-portion enclosed w/in follicle;
-shaft-portion projected from the scalp surface
-hair bulb-collection of well-nourished germinal epithelial cells at basal end of follicle; as daughter cells are pushed further away from growing region, the die and become keratinized;
bulk of hair shaft is dead material - follicle
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structure formed from both epidermal and dermal cells;
-inner epithelial root sheath-consists of internal and external parts that are enclosed by thickened basement membrane and connective tissue root sheath (which is essentially dermal tissue);
-papilla-small nipple of dermal tissue that protrudes into the hair bulb from the connective tissue sheath and provides nutrition to the growing hair - arrector pili muscle
- small bands of smooth muscle cells connect each hair follicle to the papillary layer of the dermis; when contracted (during cold or fright), slanted hair follicle is pulled upright, dimpling the skin surface with goose bumps; activity also exerts pressure on the sebaceous glands surrounding the follicle, causing a small amount of sebum to be released
- cutaneous glands
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fall primarily into 2 categories:
1. sebaceous glands
2. sweat glands
-cutaneous pertains to skin - sebum
-
product of sebaceous glands; mixture of oily substances and fragmented cells that acts as a lubricant to keep the skin soft and moist (also keeps hair from becoming brittle)
-blackhead - accumulation of dried sebum, bacteria, and melanin from epithelial cells in the oil duct - sebaceous (oil) glands
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found nearly all over the skin, except for palms and soles; ducts usually empty into a hair follicle, but some open directly on skin surface; product of gland = sebum; become particularly active during puberty when more male hormones (androgens) are produced, thus skin tends to become oilier during this period
-acne is an active infection of these glands - sweat (sudoriferous) glands
- widely distributed exocrine glands; outlets are epithelial openings called pores; categorized by composition of their secretions (eccrine and apocrine glands)
- eccrine glands
- aka merocrine sweat glands; distributed all over; produce clear perspiration consisting of water, salts, and urea; under control of nervous system results in body's heat regulating apparatus; secrete perspiration when ext. temp is high; when evaporated, excess body heat is carried with it; evaporation of greater amounts provides an efficient means of dissipating body heat when the capillary cooling system is not sufficient or is unable to maintain body temp homeostasis
- apocrine glands
- found predominantly in axillary and genital areas; secrete milky protein-and-fat rich substance (also containing water, salts, urea) that is an excellent nutrient medium for microorganisms typ. found on skin; may be analogous to the pheromone-producing scent glands of other animals because they enlarge and recede with phases of female menstrual cycles
- skeleton (functions)
-
1. support and protect
2. provides system of levers w/ which the skeletal muscles work to move the body
3. store lipids and many minerals
4. red marrow cavities provide a site for hematopoiesis - axial skeleton
- 1 of 2 divisions of the skeleton; consists of the bones that lie around the body's center of gravity
- appendicular skeleton
- 1 of 2 divisions of the skeleton; consists of linbs or appendages
- kinds of osseous tissue bone is composed of
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1. compact; smooth and homogeneous
2. spongy; small bars of bone w/s lots of open space - long bones
- longer than they are wide; generally consists of a shaft w/ heads at either end; composed predominantly of compact bone
- short bones
- typically cubed shaped; contain more spongy bone than compact bone
- flat bones
- generally thin; consists of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone; many are curved (like bones of the skull)
- irregular bones
- those which do not fall in any of the other 3 categories
- sesamoid bones
- special types formed in tendons (e.g. patella)
- wormian/sutural bones
- tiny bones b/t cranial bones; not included in 206 bone count
- bone markings
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reveal where bones form joints with other bones, where skeletal muscles, tendons, and ligaments were attached, and where blood vessels and nerves passed
-consist of 2 categories: projections and processes - periosteum
- fibrous membrane covering of bone; many penetrate into the bone
- hardness and flexibility of bone are due to...
- inorganic calcium salts deposited in the ground substance and organic elements of the matrix, (particularly the collagen fibers) respectively
- central(Haversian)canal of bone
- run parallel to the axis; carries blood vessels, nerves, and lymph vessels through the bony matrix
- osteocytes
- mature bones cells loacted in lacunae
- lacunae
- chambers that enclose osteocytes
- osteon (Haversian) system
- a central canal and all the concentric lamellae surring it
- canaliculi
- tiny canals radiating outward from a central canal to the lacunae of the first lamella and then from lamella to lamella
- perforating (Volkmann's) canals
- canals which run into the compact bone and marrow cavity at right angles to the shaft; they complete the communication pathway b/t the bone interior and external surface
- endochondral ossification
- uses hyaline cartilage "bones" as patterns for bone formation
- 7 types of cartilage and their structure/function
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1. articular-cover the bone ends at movable joints
2. costal-connecting the ribs to the sternum
3. laryngeal-largely constructs the larynx
4. tracheal/bronchial-reinforce other passageways of the respiratory system
5. nasal-support the external nose
6. intervertebral-separate and cushin bones of the spine
7. cartilage supporting the external ear - what makes up cartilage tissue?
- primarily water; is fairly resilient; contains NO nerves or blood vessels
- 3 cartilage tissue types
- hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
- hyaline cartilage
- most abundant cartilage; looks like frosted glass; provides sturdy support when some resilience or "give"; chondrocytes appear spherical and collagen fibers are the only fiber in the matrix
- elastic cartilage
- "hyaline cartilage with more elastic fibers"; more flexibe; tolerates repeated bending; e.g ears and epiglottis
- fibrocartilage
- consists of rows of chondrocytes alternating with rows of thick collagen fibers; always found where hyaline cartilage joings a tendon or ligament; can withstand heavy compression; e.g intervertebral discs and knee joint
- 2 sets of bones that make up the skull
- cranium (protect brain tissue) and facial (form base for facial muscles)
- articulations = ? and perform 2 functions
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joints;
1. hold bones together
2. allow the rigid skeletal system some flexibility so that gross body movements can occur - 3 types of joints based on FUNCTION
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1. synarthroses-immovable joints (e.g skull (the sutures))
2. amphiarthroses-slightly movable joints (e.g symphysis pubis)
3. diarthroses-freely movable joints (e.g all synovial joints) - 3 types of joints based on STRUCTURE
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1. fibrous-joined by fibrous tissue; no cavity present; most are synarthrotic and permit virtually no movement; 2 major types: sutures and syndesmoses
2. cartilaginous-articulating bone ends are connected by a plate or pad of this cartilage; no joint cavity; 2 major types: synchondroses and symphyses; e.g sync.-b/t ribs, symp.-pubic area
3. synovial-contains capsule w/ synovial fluid; allows for more complex movements (all are diarthroses); 6 TYPES - syn.jnt. 1 - plane (gliding)
- flat, slightly curved; allows sliging movements in 1 or 2 planes (e.g between carpals)
- syn.jnt. 2 - hinge
- rounded process of one bone fits into the concave surface of another; usually allows flexion and extension (e.g b/t humerus and radius/ulna, elbow)
- syn.jnt. 3 - pivot
- rounded/conical surface of one bonde articulates w/ shallow depression or foramen in another bone; allow uniaxial rotation (e.g atlas & axis, radius & ulna proximal ends)
- syn.jnt. 4 - condoyloid (ellipsoidal)
- oval condyle of one bone fits into an ellipsoidal depression in another bone, allowing biaxial movement (e.g b/t metacarpals & proximal phalanges)
- syn.jnt. 5 - saddle
- articulating surfaces are saddle-shaped; artic. surface of one bone is convex, and reciprocal surface is concave (e.g only 2 in the only body: R&L between trapezium; metacarpal #1)
- syn.jnt. 6 - ball and socket
- ball-shaped head of one bone fits into a cuplike depression of another; miltiaxial joints, allows movement in all directions and pivotal rotation (e.g b/t femur and acetabulum, humerus and glenoid cavity)
- flexion
- decreasing angle at a joint; reduces distance b/t the 2 bones
- extension
- increasing angle at a joint and distance b/w two bones or parts of the body; hyperextension can occur
- ABduction
- movement away from midline (generally on the frontal plane or the fanning movement of fingers or toes)
- ADduction
- movement towards the midline (opposite of abduction)
- rotation
- movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis w/o lateral or medial displacement
- circumduction
- a combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction (e.g shoulder); proximal end remains stationary while distal end moves in a circle
- pronation
- movement of palm of hand from anterior or upward-facing position to posterior or downward-facing position
- supination
- movement of palm of hand from a posterior position to an anterior position; "holding a bowl of soup"
- inversion
- movement that results in the medial turning of the sole of foot
- eversion
- movement that results in the lateral turning of the sole of foot; opposite of inversion
- dorsiflexion
- movement of ankle joint in a dorsal direction (e.g standing on one's heels)
- plantar flexion
- movement of ankle joint in which the foot is flexed downward (e.g standing on one's toes or pointing toes)