Speech 105 Final Review
Terms
undefined, object
copy deck
- Case Studies
- The products of delibrate study of an individual, (the changes that happen to the individual are observed)
- Stories
- Anecedtotes: share some feature with each of the other categories of narrative, also serve a support for abstract ideas and concepts
- Plot
- organizational structure of a narritve is time related, sequential series of changes as they occur over time
- Setting
- specific physical location, when, where, and what
- Histories
- subjects are similar to case study; life history of an individual, organization, natural phenomenon
- Essential Narrative Elements
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1) movement through time
2) change - Prescriptive Definitions
- commonly created for brand-new terms, ie: new technology, inventions or developments, "Unknown= slang"
- Complications
- the building up of small events, or changes and their relations to each other arouses curiosity
- Characters
- appeal and emotional impact of narritive is the focuas on characters, allows listenerns to find a point of concrete personal ID; not always human
- Bookend Stories
- the same story is used in both the introduction and conclusion, providing a fram for the speech, part of the story then the rest
- Descriptive Definitions
- reflect the established and conventional useage of a word, "Everyone knows"
- Classification
- commpn approach to explaining term ie: ie: knife is a tool or knife is an insturment
- Verbal Examples
- create vivd, easily remembered image of the term- "what an object is..."
- Non-Exemplars
- an example of what the term is not, "what a word is not.."
- Secondary Definitions
- defining typical sub-categories or parts that make up the whole term, -Sub categories- ie: happiness- feining several different types of happiness, exhilaration, contentment, and joy
- Differentiation
- need to be complete enough so there is no possibility that a knife will ne confused with a sward, a pair of scissors, or a razor. ie: a cutting instrument consisting of a sharp blade with a handdle.
- Sensory Examples
- for some terms, the best example is one the audience can see, hear, touch, smell, or tates.
- Physical properties
- create a mental picture for the audience of hte aspects that can be percieved only be human senses.
- Parts, whole, and their relationships
- the relationship of parts with each other and with the whole object adds an additional compnent, another variation ahtat emphasizes the parts and whole is a description that moves form a general description to description of specific details
- Concrete, specific language
- their very nature, general, abstract terms do not create pictures in our heads
- Ladder of Abstaction
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continuum of descriptions of the same thing for the most abstract to the most concrete
most abstract
a thing
a living organism
an animal
a carnivore
a cat
a male adult siamese
my 17-oldsiamese cat, koko who has blue points and a lout meow
most concrete - Spatial Categories
- structures, places, and objects lend themselves well to a spatial or geographic organization of the information. other spatial categories are: inside and outside, left to right, and center to periphery
- Sensory Categories
- subdivisions as: how it looks, how is sounds, how it smells, how it feels, how it tastes: overall image from becoming too fragmented, the speaker should re-integrate the physical properties during the conclusion so the listeners are left witha a composite picture
- Time Order
- using a time sequence based on a gradual discovery of the properties is another overall organizational frame a speaker can select.
- Same class comparison
- those in which the pair seem alike at first glance
- Types of comparision speeches
-
1) to explain complex ideas and processes
2) to explain common experiences ina new way
3) to assist the audience in making choices - organizational partterns for comparison speeches
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1) divided- you name the two things being compared and then list all the features or criteria for one thing and then for the other
2)alternating- you show hoe each compatible freature sompared to the other thing you may list each criteria first - Choosing comparison items
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1) the two items being compared must be have significant similarites
2)the other element must be already familiar to the audience
3)speakers must be sure they can legitimately support the cliamed superiority of the chosen situation
4)it is better not to intermix different comparison in a short space of time, esecially within one sentence
5) try to make comparisoins new and fresh - Different class comparison
- those that initially are seen as very different form each other when observed as a whole
- Topic Selection
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1) start with surveying your own specialized knowlege
2) determine if the subject you now have in mind is something that would be worthwhile for your audience to learn about
3) can you find a comparisison approach that will be useful in presenting the topic
4) can you find an appropriate object, idea, process to compare your topic to - Comparitive language
- commonly used to condense or simplify complex ideas or plnas such as political programs: metaphors
- Planning outline
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introduction
-opener
-introduction transition
-thesis and preview
Body
-developmetn of main point 1
-internal transisition
-development of main piont 2
-and so on
Conclusion
-restatement of thesis and summary
-closer - Lower level supporting claims
- represent natural divisions of the main points they support
- Steps for preparing a speech
- the builder begins by surveying what is possible ans what will limit the speakers range of choices
- Thesis
- Central claim of the speech, one-sentence encapsulation of the speech
- Main Points
- The second levels of claim developed to cupport the thesis
- Second level supporting claims
- dividing of the supporting claims
- Main Point realationship
- theose first level claims that support the thesis, should logically evolve from the two parts of the thesis: subordinate ideas that are the natural divisions of hte thesis and will be presented as the lables for the major divisions of the body of the speech
- Support Materials
- are more concrete and more specific than the claim statements and have the function of developing and supporting the claims of the speech
- Exemplar
- an example but not just any example: it is a model, archetypical example
- Supporting claims
- each main point may be sub-divided into two or more "supporting claims"
- Opener
- draw the audience into the speech: narrative, statement that surprises, questions
- Introduction transition
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1) general background about the topic such as history, explanation, definitions
2) the relevance of the topic for the audience
3) the background of the speaker - Plan of Speech
- speacker needs to in an obvious manner announce the thesis and preview the main points: word cues can warn the audience the plan is coming: ie; today i would like to talk about
- Conclusion
- Mirror of the introduction, reiterate the thesis and summerizing the main points
- Internal Transistions
- found at each major division in the bodu of the speech, one-sentence transistion, summary and preview
- Summary (review)
- phrase of what was presented in the firest main point
- Preview
- phrase of what will be presented in the second main point
- Extemporaneous
- a speaker does not write out the speech word for word
- Memory-enhancing variables
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1) notivations to remember info
2)the nature of the info to br remembered
3)the understanding of the meaning and relationship of the info
4) repetition and rehearsal of the information - Memory-enhancing Strategies
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1) introduce both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation to memoize
2) choose vivid language that emphasizes the dramatic and/or vital nature of what is to be learned
3) use humor or entertaining strategies
4) make the content meaningful
5) point out and/or creat association
6) incoporate repition, audience participation and practice - Explanation
- a logical first step is to attempt to change the nature of the information from meaningless to meaningful; outside sources, personal mental efforts
- Association
- increase the likelihood of remembering is building "association" between the new information and previously learned information
- Extrinsic
- rewards come from another person or agent and include material reward such as money, cupcakes, and trophies
- Intrinsic
- rewards come from yourself and include self-satisfaction, increased self-esteem, and greater personal independence
- Self-Evident claims
- acceptable because of the meaning of the words in the claim, not because of the way things are in the world; established by knowing the meaning of words
- Empirical Claims
- observation of things in this world for their truths, require evidence; means of their own observation, or by analyzing circumstances of hte testimony
- Testable claims
- you can observe how things are in the world to determine the acceptability of hte claim.
- Direct observation
- appeals to the listener's senses to make a claim acceptable
- Testimony
- a statement of fact or opinion, given by a speaker or someone else, which serves as the basis for beleif
- Expert opinion
- given on subjects for which ther seems to be no right answer-different experts argue differently
- Statistics
- numbers produced from data that has been organized and analyzed, and the number either summarizes the data or describes relationships amoung the data
- Factual data
- produced from measurements (yard stick, weight scale, or temperature gage), direct obersvation by an expert, or historical record (accumulation of early historical texts and archaeological discoveries)
- Quantitative data
- (the salary of the university president is 150,000 per year)
- Informative statements
- (the even numbered interstate highways run east and west, while the odd ones run north and south)
- Examples (evidence)
- (an example of an interstate highway that runs north and south is I-35. it runs form minesota to texas)
- Exhibits
- photography, aritifacts, video, or tape recordings, etc.
- Bias
- the extent he or she has a vested interest in establishing a particular point of view or obataining a particular outcome
- Circumstantial evidence
- consists of accompanying or attendant facts, events, or conditions that point to a claim
- Tests of evidence
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-is the evidence obviously relevant to the claim
-are conditions favorable to making observations clearly
-are the testimony or circumstances accurately represented i the speech
-is the source who is cited in the speech unbiased and in a postion to know
-have you obtained the most recent evidence
-are all individual pieces of evidence consistent - Soft Evidence
- Expert opinion, because there is no single right answer, the experts have come by their opinion through careful work to reduce teh likelihood of ill-informed claims
- Hard Evidence
- statistics and factual data of expert estimony. claims about which there is hard evidence, are more certainly true or false. ususally, this testimony comes in the form of statitics or facutal data
- Citing a source
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- name of the person
- date of the publication, date of the interview
- decribe the reputation, field of expertise or postition, years of experience and/or their reputation amoung peers in their field - Visual Aids
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a model, diagram, pricture, or demonstration often provides the audience with direct observation or some phenomena or circumstantial evidence
-prepare the VA in advance
-make it large enough for everyone to see
-keep it simple and attractive
-keep it covered when it is not in use
-point to it when you talk
-avoid focusing your speech toward the aid, rather than you audience - Argument
- expressed whenever a claim is asserted and other claims are offered as reasons in support of it. Set of claims of which one is supported by others.
- Premise
- a claim that provides a reason for accepting another claim
- Conclusion (argument)
- a claim that is implied or follows from the primises
- Inference
- going from something i already know to what i don't know.- when a conclusion is drawn form two or more premises
- Premise Indicators
- include such words and phrases- after all, and, as a matter of fact, becuase, by contrast, even so, finally, for, furthermore, however, in addition, indeed, in fact, in support of, it been observed that, moreover, nevertheless, now, of course, on the on hand...on the other hand, seeing that, since. NOT SEEN AS MUCH
- Conclusion indicators
- as a result, consequently, hence, it follows that, so, therefore, thus, the piont is, this implies (or entails) that, we may conclude that. SEEN ALL OVER
- Data
- informative claims the provide the basis for the conclusion
- Warrant
- a claim that explains the connection of the data to conclusion
- Qualifier
- indicates the defree of support for the conclusion- indicators- certainly, probably, presumably, likely, possibly, plausibly, maybe, so apparently, so far as the evidence, goes, for all we can tell
- Serial Argument
- one in which the conclusion for one argument become a premise for another
- Linked Argument
- uses several reasons to support the some main conculsion
- Deductive Reasoning / Argument
- emloy a form of reasoning that strickly follows the rules of logic and, as a result, the primises prove the conclusion
- Inductive reasoning/ Argument
-
a valid deductive argument has premises that guarantee tha conclusion, but an inductive argument has premises that provide only probable support for the conclusion.
reasoning- we sort out evidence form past experiences to reason about some new situation
NO GARUNTEES TRUE - Valid
- when it is not possible that the premises are true and the conclusion is false
- Invalid
- a relationship less strong
- Test to see if it is Valid
-
-find warrent of argument
-diagram 2nd half of warrent
- diagram 1st half of warrent
- add data (X)
- check conclusion - Sound
-
1) actually true premises
2) a conclusion that follows necessarily from the premises (valid)
-reserved only for deductively valid arguments having actually true premises - Unsound
- doesn't meet the criteria for being sound
- Causal Argument
- Cause and Effect- have warrents taht assert the existence of a relationship between two or more events such that one event leads to another- two events, one procedes the other, both are connected to each other
- Sign Argument
- the presence of one event is used to indicate teh presence of some condition- presence of an event indicates the presence of another
- Argument by Inductive Generalization
- interference is made from a subset of a population, called a sample, tow the whole of the population. a sample may consist of people, objects, events, or precesses, about which something is observed. The result of the observation are generalized to the larger group or population
- Evaluation and argument by Inductive Generalization depends on two issues:
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1) the size (bigger the better)
2) composition of the sample- ex. soem what like larger group- 18yr old is not like a wwII vet. - Argument by Analogy
- reasoning by analogy proceeds from the similariy of two or more objects in one or more feartures to their similariy in some additional feature. compare the features of two objects..
- Two Criteria of Argument by analogy enhance the propbablity that the conclusion will succeed
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1) the number of features shared by objects
2) the extent to which the features are relevant to the conclusion- don't look at 1 thing to determine other- not related - Necessary Condition
- have to havea in order to have b, but it is possible b won't happen at all
- Evaluating Sign Reasoning usually depends on knowing two things
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1) how reliable the sign is of indicating the presence of some condition
2) the number of signs that corroborate the conclusion - Sufficient conditon
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if a occurs, then b occurs
STRONGER