Final review-Biology
Terms
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- Experimental group
- Group used in an experiment where the variable is manipulated
- Control group
- Group in an experiment where the variable used is not maniplulated.
- Dependant variable.
- The variable that is observed.
- Independent variable
- Variable that is manipulated
- Name some important aspects about the Mitochondria
-
-"powerhouse of cell"
-produces nearly all of the ATP required for cellular work
-most numerous organelle
-has two membranes: inner, highly folded, cristae
-have their own circular DNA and produce some of their own proteins - Name some important aspects about the ribosomes
-
-site of translation
-complex of DNA and RNA
-may be 'free' or 'membrane bound' - Name some important aspects about the endoplasmic reticulum
-
-sheet of membrane enclosing a complex interconnected network of cavities and channels
-continuous with the nuclear membrane - Name some important aspects about the rough E.R.
-
-An E.R. sudded with ribosomes; protein synthesis
-modifies proteins that need modification; especially ones being exported to organelles or out of cell - Name some important aspects about the smooth E.R.
-
-free of ribosomoes
-metabolism of lipids - Name some important aspects about the protesomes
- -degrade old proteins and recycle the amino acids
- Name some important aspects about the cytoplasm
- -all cellular material outside of the nucleus but inside of the plasma membrane
- Name some important aspects about the cytosol
- -part of the cytoplasm that is not contained within the membrane-bound organelles
- What is the cell theory?
-
1. all livin organisims are composed of cells
2. cell is the basic structural unit of life
3. new cells come from preexisting cells through division - Name the three basic parts of a cell
-
1. plasma membrane
2. genetic information
3. cytoplasm - Who was Robert Hooke?
-
-perfected the compound microscope
-he observed cork
-coined the term 'cell' - Who was VanLeeuwenhoek?
-
-amateur lens maker
-1st to observe living cells
-called cells "animacules" - Name some important aspects about the golgi complex
-
-flat membranous disks
-modifies glycoproteins - Name some important aspects about the lysosome
-
-contains 40 different enzymes that break down proteins, nucleic acids, sugars and lipids
-specialized vesicle
-numerous in phagocytes - Describe phagocytosis
- -the process by which cells ingest and digest large particles of food
- Define: chromosomes
- -threads of DNA and proteins that carry the genetic information
- Name some important aspects about cell division:
- - the nucleus divides so each daughter cell gets hald of the replicated nuclar materials
- How many sets chromosomes does the human cell have?
- 23
- How do prokaryotes divide?
- -process called binary fission
- Define: binary fission
- -cell pinches into two cells
- Define: Eukaryotes
-
-cells contain membrane bound nucleus and organells
-humans - Define: Prokaryotes
- -cells do not carry membrane-bound organelles and nucleus
- Define: Homologous chromosomes
- -paired chromosomes
- How many pairs of chromosomes does a diploid have?
- 2
- How many pairs of chromosomes does a haploid cell have?
- four
- Define: mitosis
- -the division of the nucleus
- Define: cytokinesis
- -division of the cytoplasm and formation of two separate plasma membranes
- Name the five phases of mitosis:
- Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telephase
- Define: cytokenesis
-
process by which a dividing cell partitions its cytoplasm and organelles into two daughter cells
-separate from mitosis -
(mitosis)
What happens during Prophase? -
-chromatin relax (diffuse)
-chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes
-nucleoli disappears
-mitotic spindles develop outside the nucleus -
(mitosis)
What happens during Prometaphase: -
-nuclear membrane disappears
-chromosomes attach to miotic spindles at the centromere
-chromosomes start to move toward the cell equator -
(mitosis)
What happens during Metaphase: - -chromosomes align along cell's equator in a single plane
-
(mitosis)
What happens during Anaphase: -
*cytokenesis begins
-chromosomes separate more in opposite directions away from the metaphase plate (center) -
(mitosis)
What happens during telephase: -
*cytokenesis ends
-chromosomes addume the appearance of chromatin
-nucleoli reappear
-nuclear membrane forms around chromatin - Define: meiosis
- process that distributes one haploid set of chromosomes to each of the four germ cells produced from one original diploid cell
- True or false: haploid cells come from diploid cells via mitosis
- False: meiosis (GERM cells)
- What are all non-germ cells called
- Somatic (body) cells
- Define: fertilization of gametes
- -the union of two haploid gametes forming a diploid cell called a zygote
- Define: zygote
- a fertilized cell
- What is Meiosis I also refered to?
- Reduction division
- What is Meiosis II also referred to as?
- Equational division (replicating haploids)
- True or false: DNA replication occurs before the 1st division but not before the 2nd division?
- True
- Name the four stages of Meiosis I
- Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase
-
(meiosis)
What happens during prophase I? -
Homologous chromosomes form pairs
-synapsis: alignment of the homologuous chromosome pairs
-crossing over: homologous chromosomes break and exchange similar pieces forming new combinations of genes -
(mitosis)
What happens during Metaphase I? - -each tetrad migrates to the cell equator
-
(mitosis)
What happens during Anaphase I? - -sister chromatids go to the same pole
-
(mitosis)
What happens during Telephase I - -cell goes telephase I and cytokenesis quickly and right into Mitosis II
- Define: Meiosis II
- separates the sister chromatids so that each chromosome of the daugter cells consist of a single chromatid
-
(mitosis)
What happens during Anaphase II: - -separates the sister chromatids so that each chromosome of the daughter cells consist of a single chromatid
- Define: Aneuploid
- -a cell/organism with abnormal number of chromosomes
- Define: Euploid
- a cell/organism with a normal # of chromosomes
- Define: disjunction
- -when the homogolous chromosomes separate
- Define:Nondisjunction
- -when separation doesn't occur normally
- Define: autosomes
- All other chromosomes other than the X or Y chromo
- How many pairs of autosomoes do humans have?
- 22
- How many pairs of sex chromosomes do humans have?
- one
- True or false: "Y" chromosomes carry far fewer genes than the "X" chromosome?
- True
- True or false: egg and sperm are haploid?
- True
- How many sperm are produced from a germ cell?
- Four
- How many eggs are produced from a germ cell?
- One, and one polar body
- Define: cervix
- lower part of the uterus and acts as a passage from vagin to uterus
- Define: fallopian tubes
- -the oviducts, or where the oocyte finds its way after being released from the follicle
- Define: uterus
- Female organ used to nourish zygote
- Define: Urethra
-
-carries urine from the bladder
-exit tube in men surrounded by spongy, cylindrical tissue forming the glans - Define: testes
- Male reproductive gland that produces sperm
- List some of the characteristics regarding the 1st Trimester of pregnancy
-
-fatigue and nausea
-glucose and calcium redirected from mom to fetus
-metabolism increases - List some of the characteristics regarding the 2nd Trimester of pregnancy
-
-abdomen swells
-energy increases, morning sickness ends
-fetus kicks - List some of the characteristics regarding the 3rd Trimester of pregnancy
-
-frequent urination
-leg numbness
-poor sleep
-fetus pushes on internal organs - Define: colostrum
- -similar to milk, but has less fat and high in antibodies
- Define: allele
- -alternate versions of the same gene
- Define: gene
- a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that is located in the germ plasm usually on a chromosome and that is the functional unit of inheritance controlling the transmission and expression of one or more traits by specifying the structure of a particular polypeptide and especially a protein or controlling the function of other genetic material
- Define: Homozygous
- -two copies of the SAME allele
- Define: Heterozygous
- -two different alleles for a single gene i.e. Tt
- Define: genotype
- -the actual genes present in the cells of an organism
- Define: phenotype
- The expression of the genes creating an observable trait
- When is a gene recessive?
- When it contributes nothing to the phenotype of a heterozygote
- Define: Homeostasis
- a relatively stable state of equilibrium
- Define: codominance
- -when two alleles each contribute to the phenotype
- Define: linkage map (group)
- -sets of genes that do not independently assort
- Define: recombination
- -results in new chromosome with some genes from each of the parental homologus
- Who were Watson and Crick?
-
-discovered the structure of DNA
-model
-sugar-phosphate backbone on the outside
-nitrogen bases on the inside - What are the three components of a nucleotide?
- phosphate,nitrogen and sugar
- What is the basic building block of DNA and RNA?
- -nucleotide
- What is the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology?
- DNA-RNA----Proteins
- Define: Translation
- -is the copying of DNA into RNA, occurs in the nucleus
- Define: Transcription
- -used RNA to direct the synthesis of protein, occurs in the cytoplasm
- Define: mRNA
- Messenger RNA-carries the genetic instructions from DNA to the ribosome
- Define: tRNA
- Transfer RNA: carries the animo acid to the complimentary mRAN codon at the ribosome
- Define: rRNA
- Ribosomal RNA: part of the ribosome and it's involved with forming the peptide bond between growing "protein" and the next amino acid
- Define: Intron and extron
- the removal of large pieces of RNA (intervening sequences; intron) and splicing the remainders (expressed sequences; extron) into mRNA
- Define: codon
- sequence of three nitrogen bases
- Describe the four types of gene regulation:
-
1. Transcriptional control: increase or decrease the amount of mRNA
2. Posttranscriptionl control: mRNA transcribed, but regulates the modification of pre-mRNA
3. Translational control: regulates the rate of translation
4. Posttranslational control: polypeptide needs modification to become functional protein - Define: mutagen
- -permanent change to a DNA sequence
- Complimentary base pairing:
-
C-G
A-T
(RNA) A-U - Purine:
- double ringed H-bases (A and G)
- Pyrimidine:
- Single ringed N-base (C,T,U)
- Bolus:
- A soft mass of chewed food
- Chyme:
- the semifluid mass of partly digested food expelled by the stomach into the duodenum
- Vitamins:
- any of various organic substances that are essential in minute quantities to the nutrition of most animals and some plants
- Minerals:
- Inorganic substance needed in small amounts in the body
- Cartilage:
- cushions the joint
- Ligaments:
- attach bone to bone and around the joint
- Tendon:
- attach muscle to bone
- Plasma:
- fluid part of blood
- Erythrocytes:
- red blood cells
- Leukocytes:
- white blood cells, contribute to the body's defense against infection and tumors
- Platelets:
- small cell fragments that help blood coagulate
- Hemoglobin:
- An oxygen binding protein whose iron containing heme groups are red when O2 is attached
- Pericarduim:
- fibrous sac surrounds the heart and baths it in a lubricating fluid
- Myocardium:
- muscular wall of the heart (4 chambers)
- Systolic blood pressure:
- the highest number and occurs when the ventricle contracts
- Diastolic blood pressure:
- lowest, occurs when heart is relaxed
- True or false: the contraction period of the heart is the systole?
- True
- Aorta:
- Largest vessel, artery that carries blood from left ventricle to rest of the body
- Ventricle:
- thicker walled sending chamber
- Cardiovascular
- involving the heart and blood vessles
- Pulmonary circulation:
- carries blood without oxygen from the heart to the lungs
- Systematic circulation:
- delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body
- Axon:
- long appendage that transmits a signal
- Dendrites:
- shorter, more numerous appendages that receive signals from other cells
- Synapse:
- space between nerve cells
- Thalamus:
- Located in the forebrain, major integrator of sensory information about the external world
- Substantia nigra:
- Located in the midbrain, important for initiating movements
- Diencephalon:
- Located in the forebrain, contains the thalamus and the hypothalamus
- Pons:
- link information passing between the brain and spinal cord
- Medulla:
- also contains the "centers" that regulate breathing and blood circulation
- Amygdala:
- coordinates autonomic responses to emotional states
- Reflexive memory:
- has reflex like quality, automatic, not dependent on awareness
- Declarative memory:
- recalled through thought or experience
- Who was Charles Darwin:
- Developed theory of natural selection, evolutionary theory, "descent with modification"
- Who was Louis Pasteur
-
founder of microbiology
designed simple experiment disproving spontaneous generation
concluded: all life comes from existing life - List the types of reproductive isolations:
-
1.Ecological isolation-how species live
2. temporal-when they reproduce
3. behavioral-mating behaviors
4. mechanical-do not have complementary male and female reproductive organs
5. gametic-gametes aren't compatable - What is the proper way to write scientific names?
- (italicised) Homo sapien
- Who was Carl Linneus:
- designed a taxonomic heirarchy for the classification of life
- Name the three bacterial cell shapes:
-
Baccili-rod shaped
Cocci-spherical
Spirilla-spiral shaped - Who is Carl Woese?
- From the U of I; lef to the recognition of archea as a separate domain of life
- Name some aspects of chrysophytes:
-
(golden algae and diatons)
-most commmon in temperate lakes and ponds as plankton
-diatons are some of the most numerous and attractive chrysophytes composed of silica - Name some aspects of parasitic protozoans:
-
1.complex life cycles
2. plasmodia causes malaria - Name the technical name for vascular plants:
- Tracheophytes-includes all the most familiar living plants; not restricted in size
- Name the technical name for non-vascular plants:
- Bryophytes:include the mosses,liverworts and hornworts. Anchor to surfaces by special "rootlike" structures
- Define: rhizoid
- root-like structure of Bryophytes, not designed for absorption of water
- Name aspects of Tracheophytes:
-
subdivided into:seedless and seed plants
-diploid sporophytes are dominant
-transport of water involves the xylem and the phloem - Name aspects of the Bryophytes:
-
most prominent phase of the life cycle is the haploid gametophyte which produce the gametes via mitosis
-require freestanding water for photosynthesis and fertilization by free-swimming sperm - Xylem:
- carries water and minerals from the root to the leaves for use in photosynthesis
- Phloem:
- distributes the sugars and other organic compounds made in the leaves to the rest of the plant
- Angiosperm:
- produce seends with fruits and flowers
- Gymnosperm:
- conifers,cycads,ginkos,gnetae-produce seends without flowers or fruits
- Photosynthesis:
- synthesis of chemical compounds with the aid of radiant energy and especially light
- Blastula:
- hollow ball of cells that developes from the fertilization of a eumetazoa
- Endoderm:
- innermost layer of cell, gives rise to the intestines and other digestive organs
- Mesoderm:
- the middle layer of cell, gives rise to the intestines and other digestive organs
- Ectoderm:
- outermost layer, gives rise to the skin, sense organs and nervous system
- List the three order of reptiles:
-
Crocodilia:crocodiles and aligators
Chelonia-turtles and tortoises
Squamata:lizards - Hyphae:
- thread-like filaments which contain many nuclei-composition of fungi
- Endosymbiosis:
- a close association of two organisims, which one lives inside the other, mutually beneficial
- Macroevolution:
- the orgin and multiplication of species
- Population genetics:
- explains in mathematical terms the process by which variation is generated and passed on within populations of organisms
- Microevolution:
- comparatively minor evolutionary change involving the accumulation of variations in populations usually below the species level
- Transpiration:
- passage of watery vapor from a living body through a membrane or pores
- Nuceloid:
- the DNA-containing area of a prokaryotic cell
- Antibiotics:
- chemicals that kill the bacterial cells without harming our own
- Plasmid:
- smaller loop of DNA in prokaryotes
- Endotherm:
- maintain constant body temperature by capturing the heat released by metabolism and releasing heat from their bodies (birds and mammals)
- Ectotherm:
- reptiles,depend on external sources of heat
- Three types of animal defenses:
-
1. camoflogue
2. chemical defenses
3. coloration - How do humans alter the carbon and nitrogen cycles?
- fertilizers, burning of fossil fuels
- Symbiosis:
- two species have intimate associations
- Parasitiism:
- species benefits at expense of other species
- Mutialism:
- symbiotic relatonship between two species that mutually benefit
- Commensalism:
- intimate relationship btwn two species that neither helps not harms
- Primary succession:
- invasion of a completely new environment
- Secondary succession:
- invasion of an environment which contains a previous community that has suffered damage
- Pioneer community:
- part of 1st succession
- Climax community:
- Long lived and occurs at the end of a succession, low rate of change
- Biotic:
- living
- Abiotic:
- non-living
- Herbivore:
- gets source of energy from plant matter
- Carnivore:
- gets energy from both plant and other organisms
- Scavengers
- get energy from carcases of other organisms
- Decomposers:
- dead organisms
- Food chain:
- linear sequence of "who eats who"
- Food "web"
- collection of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem
- Cloaca:
- the common chamber into which the intestinal, urinary, and generative canals discharge in birds, reptiles, amphibians, and many fishes