Supreme Court Cases and Laws

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California v. Acevedo (1991): This court case decision let police, who have found a suspicious container within automobiles, search inside the container without having to have a warrant.
Korematsu v. US (1944): Case concerning the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066, which required Japanese-Americans in the western United States to be excluded from a described West Coast military area. In a 6-3 decision, the Court sided with the government, ruling that the exclusion order was constitutional. The opinion, written by Supreme Court justice Hugo Black, held that the need to protect against espionage outweighed Fred Korematsu's individual rights, and the rights of Americans of Japanese descent.
Roth v. United States (1957): A landmark case before the United States Supreme Court which redefined the Constitutional test for determining what constitutes obscene material unprotected by the First Amendment.
Edwards v. South Carolina (1963): [1st Amendment, freedom of speech and assembly] A group of mostly African American civil rights activists held a rally at the South Carolina State Capitol, protesting segregation. A hostile crowd gathered and the rally leaders were arrested and convicted for "breach and peace." The Court overturned the convictions, saying, "The 14th Amendment does not permit a State to make criminal the peaceful expression of unpopular views."
Board of Education of Pottawatomie County v. Earls (2002): This supreme court decision decided that testing students in extracurricular activities for drugs was constitutional. The two students that brought forth the case were Lindsay Earls and Daniel James. Their argument was that the random urinalysis testing for drug use was in violation of the fourth amendment, which stated that people would be protected against unreasonable search and seizures. It was ruled that students were expected to have less privacy during those activities.
Katz v. United States (1967): This was a ruling that let the fourth amendment extend to protect people in a telephone booth from wiretaps without a warrant.
Gregg v. Georgia (1976): [8th Amendment, cruel and unusual punishment] A Georgia jury sentenced Troy Gregg to death after finding him guilty on two counts each of murder and armed robbery. Gregg appealed the sentence, claiming that it violated the "cruel and unusual punishment" clause of the 8th Amendment and citing Furman v Georgia, 1972, in which the court held that Georgia's application of the death penalty was unfair and arbitrary. However, the Court upheld Gregg's sentence, stating for the first time that "punishment of death does not invariably violate the Constitution."
Reynolds v. US (1879): Case that held that religious duty was not a suitable defense to a criminal indictment. George Reynolds was a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, charged with bigamy after marrying Amelia Jane Schofield while still married to Mary Ann Tuddenham in the Utah Territory. Before the Supreme Court, Reynolds argued that his conviction for bigamy should be overturned on six issues. These included that his grand jury had not been legal, that challenges of certain jurors were improperly overruled, testimony by Amelia Jane Schofield was not permissible as it was under another indictment, and most importantly that it was his religious duty to marry multiple times.
Gitlow v. NY (1925): Case argued before the United States Supreme Court in which the Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution had extended the reach of certain provisions of the First Amendment — specifically the provisions protecting freedom of speech and freedom of the press — to the governments of the individual states. The Supreme Court previously held, in Barron v. Baltimore, 32 U.S. 243 (1833), that the Constitution's Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government, and that, consequently, the federal courts could not stop the enforcement of state laws that restricted the rights enumerated in the Bill of Rights.
Olmstead v. United States (1925): [4th Amendment, electronic surveillance] Olmstead was engaged in the illegal sale of alcohol. Much of the evidence against him was gained through a wiretap made without a warrant. Olmstead argued that he has "a reasonable expectation of privacy," and that the Weeks v United States decision of 1914 should be applied to exclude the evidence gained by the wiretap. The Court disagreed, saying that Olmstead intended "to project his voice to those quite outside and that nothing tangible was taken." Reversed by subsequent decisions, this case contains the first usage of the concept of "reasonable expectation of privacy" that would mark later 4th Amendment decisions.
Civil Rights Act of 1964: outlawed racial segregation in schools, public places, and employment.
Smith Act (1940): A United States federal statute that makes it a criminal offense for anyone to: knowingly or willfully advocate, abet, advise or teach the duty, necessity, desirability or propriety of overthrowing the Government of the United States or of any State by force or violence, or for anyone to organize any association which teaches, advises or encourages such an overthrow, or for anyone to become a member of or to affiliate with any such association.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): [14th Amendment, Equal Protection Clause] A Louisiana law required separate seating for white and African American citizens on public railroads, a form of segregation. Herman Plessy argued that his right to "equal protection of the laws" was violated. The Court held that segregation was permitted if facilities were equal. The Court interpreted the 14th Amendment as "not intended to give Negroes social equality but only political and civil equality" The Louisiana law was seen as a "reasonable exercise of (State) police power." Segregated public facilities were permitted until Plessy was overturned by the Brown v Board of Education case of 1954.
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978): Allan Bakke, a white male, applied to the University of California at Davis Medical School. He was denied admission because he did not meet the standard entrance requirements. Davis Medical School also had a special admissions program for minorities. Sixteen per cent of the available places were reserved for minorities who did not meet the standard entrance requirements. Bakke argued that the requirements for special admissions to the medical school were discriminatory because only African-American, Chicano, and Asian students could compete for these places. The University of California argued that its special admissions program remedied the long standing historical wrong of racial discrimination.
Tinker v. Des Moines School District (1969): Decision: The Court upheld the students' First Amendment rights. Because students do not "shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate," schools must show a possibility of "substantial disruption" before free speech can be limited at school. Students may express personal opinions as long as they do not materially disrupt class work, create substantial disorder or interfere with the rights of others. In this case, the wearing of black armbands was a "silent, passive expression of opinion" without these side effects and thus constitutionally could not be prohibited by the school.
Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971): Case in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Pennsylvania's 1968 Nonpublic Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which allowed the state Superintendent of Public Instruction to reimburse nonpublic schools (most of which were Catholic) for teachers' salaries, textbooks and instructional materials, violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The decision also upheld a decision of the First Circuit, which had struck down the Rhode Island Salary Supplement Act providing state funds to supplement salaries at nonpublic elementary schools by 15%. As in Pennsylvania, most of these funds were spent on Catholic schools.
Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940): Decision holding that incorporated (enforced) the First Amendment's protection of religious free exercise against individual states (as opposed to federal actions). A Connecticut statute required licenses for those soliciting for religious or charitable purposes. The statute was an early type of consumer protection law: it required the Secretary, before issuing a certificate permitting solicitation, to determine whether the cause was "a religious one or is a bona fide object of charity or philanthropy" and whether the solicitation "conforms to reasonable standards of efficiency and integrity." Upon determination of the cause's legitimacy, a solicitation certificate would be issued.
Marbury v. Madison (1803): It formed the basis for the exercise of judicial review in the United States under Article III of the Constitution. This case resulted from a petition to the Supreme Court by William Marbury, who had been appointed by President John Adams as Justice of the Peace in the District of Columbia but whose commission was not subsequently delivered. Marbury petitioned the Supreme Court to force Secretary of State James Madison to deliver the documents, but the court, with John Marshall as Chief Justice, denied Marbury's petition, holding that the statute upon which he based his claim, the Judiciary Act of 1801, was unconstitutional.
Lynch v. Donnelly (1984): Case in the Supreme Court of the United States challenging the legality of holiday decorations on town property. Pawtucket, Rhode Island's annual Christmas display in the city's shopping district, consisting of a Santa Claus house, a Christmas tree, a banner reading "Seasons Greetings," and a crèche, was challenged in court. The crèche had been a part of the display since at least 1943.[2] The plaintiffs brought the suit to the District Court of Rhode Island, which permanently enjoined the city from displaying the Nativity scene in violation of the Establishment Clause. The Court of Appeals for the First Circuit affirmed the district court's ruling. The city then petitioned to the U.S. Supreme Court for certiorari.
Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger (2003): Gratz vs. Bollinger was a ruling that stated adding points due to race in the university admission point system was unconstitutional. The ruling was against the University of Michigan's undergraduate admission. Grutter vs. Bollinger was a ruling that upheld the Gratz vs. Bollinger ruling.
Weeks v. United States (1914): Fremont Weeks was suspected of using the mail system to distribute chances in a lottery, which was considered gambling and was illegal in Missouri. Federal agents entered his house, searched his room, and obtained papers belonging to him. Later, the federal agents returned to the house in order to collect more evidence and took letters and envelopes from Weeks' drawers. In both instances, the police did not have a search warrant. The materials were used against Weeks at his trial and he was convicted.
West Virginia Board of Education v. Barnette (1943): A decision by the Supreme Court of the United States that held that the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protected students from being forced to salute the American flag and say the Pledge of Allegiance in school. It was a significant court victory won by Jehovah's Witnesses, whose religion forbade them from saluting or pledging to political institutions or symbols. However, the Court did not address the effect the compelled salutation and recital ruling had upon their particular religious beliefs, but instead ruled that the state did not have the power to compel speech in that manner for anyone.
Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972): The case in which the United States Supreme Court found that Amish children could not be placed under compulsory education past 8th grade, as it violated their parents' fundamental right to freedom of religion. hree Amish students from three different families stopped attending New Glarus High School in the New Glarus, Wisconsin school district at the end of the eighth grade, all due to their religious beliefs. The three families were represented by Jonas Yoder (one of the fathers involved in the case) when the case went to trial. They were convicted in the Green County Court, and that ruling was upheld in the appeals court. Each defendant was fined the sum of 5 dollars. Thereafter the Wisconsin Supreme Court found in Yoder's favor. At this point Wisconsin appealed that ruling in the U. S. Supreme Court.
Smith v. Collin (1978): The village of Skokie, Ill., a suburb of Chicago, in 1974 had a population of approximately 70,000 persons. A majority were Jewish; of the Jewish population a substantial number were survivors of World War II persecution. In March 1977, respondents Collin and the National Socialist Party of America, which Collin described as a "Nazi organization," publicly announced plans to hold an assembly in front of the Skokie Village Hall. On May 2, the village enacted three ordinances. The first established a permit system for parades and public assemblies and required applicants to post public liability and property damage insurance. The second prohibited the dissemination of material that incited racial or religious hatred with intent so to incite. The third prohibited public demonstrations by members of political parties while wearing military- style uniforms
Miranda v. Arizona (1966): [5th, 6th, and 14th Amendments rights of the accused] Arrested for kidnapping and sexual assault, Ernesto Miranda signed a confession including a statement that he had "full knowledge of [his] legal rights." After conviction, he appealed, claiming that without counsel and without warnings, the confession was illegally gained. The Court agreed with Miranda that "he must be warned prior to any questioning that he has the right to remain silent, that anything he says can be used against him in a court of law, that he has the right o and attorney and that if he cannot afford an attorney one will be appointed for him." Although later modified by Nix v Williams, 1984, and other cases, Miranda firmly upheld citizen rights to fair trials in State courts.
Miller v. California (1973): An important United States Supreme Court case involving what constitutes unprotected obscenity for First Amendment purposes. The decision reiterated that obscenity was not protected by the First Amendment and established the Miller test for determining what constituted obscene material.
Incorporation of Bill of Rights (p. 536): The Supreme Court case incorporated most of the guarantees in the Bill of Rights into the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause.
Near v. Minnesota (1931): This case took part on January 30, 1931. The United States Supreme Court decision was that a Minnesota law targeted publishers of "malicious" or "scandalous" newspapers violated the First Amendment to the United States Constitution (as through the fourteenth amendment). the State Supreme Court did not believe that the right was intended to protect the publishing of "scandalous material", but that it only provided "a shield for the honest, careful and conscientious press," not the "defamer and the scandalmonger."
Escobedo v. Illinois (1964): [6th Amendment, right to counsel] In a case involving a murder confession by a person known to Chicago-area police who was not afforded counsel while under interrogation, the Court extended the "exclusionary rule to illegal confessions in State court proceedings. Carefully defining an "Escobedo Rule," the Court said , "where the investigation is no longer a general inquiry but has begun to focus on a particular suspect (and where) the suspect has been taken into custody the suspect has requested his lawyer, and the police have not warned him of his right to remain silent, the accused has been denied counsel in violation of the 6th Amendment."
Jones v. Mayer (1968): This case was a ruling against discrimination in the sale of rental property. To prevent that, it let Congress regulate the sale of private property. It was ruled to enforce the thirteenth amendment.
United States v. American Library Association (2003): Decision: Requiring public libraries to install filters to block obscene or pornographic Internet sites as a condition for obtaining federal funds for Internet access does not violate the 1st Amendment. Congress' substantial interest in protecting children from harmful materials justifies the minimal interference with free speech caused when library users are enforced to request access to a specific site.
Furman v. Georgia (1972):: [8th Amendment, capital punishment] Three different death penalty cases, including Furman, raised the question of racial imbalances in the use of death sentences by State courts. Furman had been convicted and sentenced to death in Georgia. In deciding to overturn existing State death penalty laws, the Court noted that there was an "apparent arbitrariness of the use of sentence." Many States rewrote their death penalty statutes and these were generally upheld in Gregg v Georgia.
Ex Parte Milligan (1866): [Article II, executive powers] An Indiana man was arrested, treated as a prisoner of war, and imprisoned by a military court during the Civil War under presidential order. He claimed that his rights to a fair trial were interfered with and that military courts had no authority outside of "conquered territory." He was released because "the Constitution is a law for rulers and people, equally in war and peace, and covers all men, at all times, and under all circumstances." The Court held that presidential powers to suspend the writ of habeas corpus in time of war did not extend to creating another court system run by the military.
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): [6th Amendment, right to counsel] In 1961 a Florida court found Clarence Earl Gideon guilty of breaking and entering and sentenced him to five years in prison. Gideon appealed his case to the Supreme Court on the basis that he had been unconstitutionally denied counsel during his trial due to Florida's policy of only providing appointed counsel in capital cases. The Court granted Gideon a new trial, and he was found not guilty with the help of a court-appointed attorney. The "Gideon Rule" upheld the 6th Amendment's guarantee of counsel of all poor persons facing a felony charge, a further incorporation of Bill of Rights guarantees into State constitutions.
Shenck v. United States (1919): A United States Supreme Court decision concerning the question of whether the defendant possessed a First Amendment right to free speech against the draft during World War I. Charles Schenck was the Secretary of the Socialist party and was responsible for printing, distributing, and mailing 15,000 leaflets to men eligible for the draft that advocated opposition to the draft. These leaflets contained statements such as; "Do not submit to intimidation", "Assert your rights", "If you do not assert and support your rights, you are helping to deny or disparage rights which it is the solemn duty of all citizens and residents of the United States to retain." Ultimately, the case served as the founding of the "clear and present danger" rule.
Sedition Act of 1917: A United States federal law passed shortly after entering World War I, on June 15, 1917, which made it a crime for a person: * to convey information with intent to interfere with the operation or success of the armed forces of the United States or to promote the success of its enemies. This was punishable by death or by imprisonment for not more than 30 years * to convey false reports or false statements with intent to interfere with the operation or success of the military or naval forces of the United States or to promote the success of its enemies and whoever when the United States is at war, to cause or attempt to cause insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, refusal of duty, in the military or naval forces of the United States, or to willfully obstruct the recruiting or enlistment service of the United States. This was punishable by a maximum $USD 10,000 fine (almost $170,000 in today's dollars) and 20 years in prison.
New York Times v. United States (1971): [1st Amendment, freedom of the press] The New York Times obtained copies of classified Defense Department documents, later known as the "Pentagon Papers," which revealed instances in which the Johnson Administration had deceived Congress and the American people regarding US policies during the Vietnam War. A US district court issued an injunction against the publication of the documents, claiming that it might endanger national security. On appeal, the Supreme Court cited the 1st Amendment guarantee of a free press and refused to uphold the injunction against publication, observing that it is the obligation of the government to prove that actual harm to the nation's security would be cause by the publication. The decision limited "prior restraint" of the press.
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971): In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. Swann deals with how school districts such as the Charlotte-Mecklenburg School District in North Carolina may restructure their attendance zones to comply with the Brown decision. The Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education proposed a plan that involved busing students to balance the ratio of black to white students in its schools.
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): [14th Amendment, Due Process Clause] A Connecticut law forbade the use of "any drug, medicinal article, or instrument for the purpose of preventing conception." Griswold, director of Planned Parenthood in New Haven, was arrested for counseling married persons and, after conviction, appealed. The Court overturned the Connecticut law, saying that "various guarantees (of the Constitution) create zones of privacy" and questioning, "would we allow the police to search the sacred precincts of marital bedrooms" The decision is significant for raising for more careful inspection the concept of "unenumerated rights" in the 9th Amendment, later central to Roe v Wade, 1973.
United States v. Miller (1935): An important United States Supreme Court case involving what constitutes unprotected obscenity for First Amendment purposes. The decision reiterated that obscenity was not protected by the First Amendment and established the Miller test for determining what constituted obscene material.
Engel v. Vitale (1962): Case that determined that it is unconstitutional for state officials to compose an official school prayer and require its recitation in public schools.
Civil Rights Act of 1968: (AKA: Fair Housing Act of 1968) expanded on the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin, and as of 1974, sex; as of 1988, the act protects the handicapped and families with children. It also provided protection for civil rights workers
Alien and Sedition Acts (1798): Four bills passed in 1798 by the Federalists in the United States Congress—who were waging an undeclared naval war with France, later known as the Quasi-War—and signed into law by President John Adams. Proponents claimed the acts were designed to protect the United States from alien citizens of enemy powers and to stop seditious attacks from weakening the government. The Democratic-Republicans, like later historians, attacked them as being both unconstitutional and designed to stifle criticism of the administration, and as infringing on the right of the states to act in these areas.
Roe v. Wade (1973): [9th Amendment, right to privacy] A Texas woman challenged a State law forbidding the artificial termination of a pregnancy, saying that she "had a fundamental right to privacy." The Court upheld a woman's right to choose in this case, noting that the Senate's "important and legitimate interest in protecting the potentiality of human life" became "compelling" at the end of the first trimester, and that before then, "the attending physician, in consultation with his patient, is free to determine, without regulation by the State, that the patient's pregnancy should be terminated." The decision struck down the State regulation of abortion in the first three months of pregnancy and was modified by Planned Parenthood of Southeastern PA v Casey, 1992.
Rochin v. California (1952): Shocking conscience is unconstitutional because of the fourteenth amendment, due process of law. Rochin's house was entered without a warrant and Rochin swallowed a capsule after trying to force out the pill by putting his finger in his mouth and was handcuffed and brought to the emergency room. They forcibly made him throw up the capsule into a bucket and found it to be morphin.

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