Child PSY FINAL

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behavior modification: procedures that combine and modeling to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses.
behaviorism: An approach that regards directly observable events - stimuli and responses - as the appropriate focus of study and views the development of behavior as taking place through classical and operant conditioning
child development: a field of study devoted to the understanding of constancy and change from conception through adolescence and emerging adulthood
chronosystem: in ecological systems theory, temporal changes in children's environments, which produce new conditions that affect development. These changes arise from within the child.
clinical interview: A method in which the researcher uses a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view.
clinical/case study method: a method in which the researcher attempts to understand the unique individual child by combining interview data, oberservations, test scores, and sometimes psychophysiological measures.
cognitive-development theory: an approach introduced by Piaget that veiws children as actively constructing knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world, and views cognitive development as taking places in stages.
cohort effects: the effects of cultural-historical change on the accuracy of longitudinal and cross sectional findings. Children born at the same time are influenced by particular cultural and historical conditions. results based on one cohort may not apply to children developing and different times
contexts: unique combinations of genetic and environmental circumstances that can result in markedly different paths of development
continuous development: a view that regards development as gruadually argumenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with.
correlation coeficient: a number, ranging from +1 ro -1 that describes the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables
correlational design: a research design in which the researcher gathers information without altering participants experiences and examines the relationships between variables. Does not permit inferences about cause and effect.
cross-section design: a research study in which groups of people differing in age are studied at the same point in time.
dependent variable: the variable the researcher expects to be affected by the independent variable in the experiment
discontinuous development: a view in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times.
dynamic system perspective: a view that regards the child's mind, body, and physical and social worlds as a dynamic, integrated system. A change in any part of the system leads the child to reorganize his or her behavior so the various components of the system work together lead the child to reorganize his or her behavior so the various components of the system work together again but in a more complex and effective way
ecological systems theory: bronfenbrenner's approach, which views the child as developing within a complex systems of relationships affected by multiple levels of the environment, from immediate settings of family and school to broad cultural values and programs
ethnography: a method in which the researcher attempts to understand the unique values and social processes of a culture or a distinct social group by living with its members and taking field notes for an extended period of time
ethology: an approach concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and it's evolutionary history
evolutionary developmental psychology: an approach that seeks to understand the adaptive value of species-wide cognitive, emotional and social competencies as those competencies change with age
exosystem: in ecological systems theory, settings that do not contain children but that affect their experiences in immediate settings. Examples include parents workplaces, heath and welfare services in the community, and parent's social networks
experimental design: a research design in which the invesigator randomly assigns participants to two or more treatment conditions. Permits inferences about cause and effect.
independent variable: the variable the researcher expects to cause changes in another variable in an experiment
information processing: an approach that views the human mind as a symbol manipulating system through which information flows and regards cognitive development as a continuous process
longitudinal design: a research design in which participamts are studied repeatedly at different ages.
longitudinal-sequential design: a research design with both longitudinal and cross-sectional components in which groups of participants born in different years are followed over time.
macrosystem: in ecological systems, cultural values, laws, customs, and resources that influence experiences and interactions at inner levels of the environment
mesosystem: in ecological systems theory, connections between childrens immediate settings
microgenetic design: a research design in which researchers present children with a novel task and follow their mastery over a series of closely spaces sessions
maturation: a genetically determined naturally unfolding course of growth
microsystem: in ecological systems theory, the activities and interaction patterns in the childs immediate surroundings
naturalistic obervation: a method in which the researcher goes into the natual environment to observe the behavior of interest
nature-nurture controversy: debate among theorists about whether genetic or environmental factors are more important determinants of development and behavior
noble savage: rousseau's view of the child as natually endowed with a sense of right and wrong and an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth
normative approach: an approach in which measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuas and age-related averages are computed to resent typical development
psychoanalytic perspective: an approach to personality development in which freud assumes that children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. The way these conficts are resolved determines the persons ability to learn, to get along with others and to cope with anxiety
psychological methods: methods that measure the relationship between physiological processes and behavior. Among the most common are measures of autonomic nervous systemn activity (such as heart rate and respiration) and brain functioning (EEG and fMRI)
psychosexual theory: Freud's theory which emphasizes that how parents manage children's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years of life is crucial for healthy personality development
psychosocial theory: erikson's theory which emphasizes that at each freudian stage, individuals not only develop a unique personality but also acquire attidtudes and skills that help them become active contributing members of their society
random assignment: an unbiased procedure for assigning participant to treatment groups, such as drawing numbers out of a hat, flipping a coin . Increases chance of having that participants characteristics equally distributed across treatment conditions in an experimemnt
resilience: the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development
sensitive period: a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences. Development can occur later, but it is harder to induce.
social learning theory: a theory that emphasizes the role of modeling, or obersevational learning, in the development of behavior. its most recent revision stresses the importance of thinking in social learning and is called social-cognitive theory
sociocultural theory: vygotsky's theory in which children are assumed to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a communities culture through cooperative dialogues with more knowlegable members of society
stage: a qualitative change in thinking, feeli9ng, and behaving that characterizes a specific period of development
structured interview: a method in which each participant is asked the same questions in the same way
structured observation: a method in which the investigator sets up a situation that evokes the behavior of interest and observes it in a laboratory.
tabula rasa: locke's view of child as a "blank slate" whose character is shaped by experience
theory: an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains and predicts behavior
behavioral genetics: a field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to the diversity in humans traits and abilities
canalization: the tendency of hereditary to restrict the development of some characteristics to just one or a few outcomes
collectivist societys: societies in which people define themselves as part of a group and stress group over individuals goals.
concordance rate: the percentage of instances in which both members of a twin pair show a trait when it is present in one pair member. used to study the contribution of hereditary to emotional and behavioral disorders that can be judged as either present or absent
epigenesis: development of te individual resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between hereditary and all levels of the environment
extended family household: a household in which parent and child live with one or more adult relatives
genetic-environmental correlation: the idea that hereditary influences the environments to which individuals are exposed
heritability estimate: a statistic that measures the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors
individualitic societys: societies in which people think of themselves as seperate entities and are largely concerned with their own personal needs
kinship studies: studies comparing the characteristics of family members to determine the important of hereditary in complex human characteristics
niche-picking: a type of genetic-environmental correlation in which individuals actively chose environments that compliment their heredity
public policies: laws and government programs designed to improve current conditions
range of reaction: each persons unique, genetically determined response to range of environmental conditions
socioeconomic status: a measure of a families social position and economic well being that combines three interrelated, but not completely overlapping, variables: (1) years of education and (2) the prestige of and skill required by one's job, both of which measured economic status, and (3) income, which measures economic status
subculture: a group of people with beliefs and customs that differ from those of the larger culture
acquired immune deficiency syndrome: a viral infection that destroys the immune system and is spread through transfer of body fluids from one person to another. it can be transmitted prenatally.
age of viability: the age at which the fetus can fetus can first survive if born early. orrcurs sometime 22 and 26 weeks.
amnion: the inner membrane that forms a protective covering around the prenatal organism
blastocyst: the zygote 4 days after fertilization, when the tiny mass of cells forms a hollow, fluid filled ball
chorion: the outer membrane that forms a protective covering around the prenatal organism. It sends out tiny, fingerlike villi, fro, which the placenta begins to develop
embryo: the prenatal organism from 2 to 8 weeks after conception, during which time the foundations of all body structures are internal organs are laid down
embryonic disk: a small cluster of cells on the inside of the blastocyst, from which the new organism will develop
fetal alcohol effects (FAE): the condition of children who display some but not all defects of fetal alcohol syndrome. usually their mothers drank during pregnancy just in smaller quantities
fetal alcohol syndom (FAS): a set of defects that results when women consume large amounts of alcohol during their pregnancy. inclued mental retardation, slow physical growth, and facial abnormalities
fetus: the prenatal organism from the the third month to the end of the pregnancy, during which time completion of body structures and dramatic growth in size take place
implantation: attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine lining 7 to 9 days after fertilization
lanugo: a white, downy hair that covers the entire body of the fetus, helping the vernix to stick to the skin
neural tube: the primitive spinal cord that develops from the ectoderm, the top of which swells to form the brain during the period of the embryo
placenta: the organ that seperates the mothers bloodstream from the embryos or fetal bloodstream but permits exchange of nutrients and waste products
RH factor incompatibility: a condition that arises when the RH protein, present in the fetus' blood but not in the mothers, causes the mother to build up a antibodies. If these return to the fetus' system, the destroyed red blood cells, reducing the oxygen supply and to organs and tissues
rubella: three day german measles. cause a wide variety of prenatal abnormalities, especially whenh it strikes during the embryonic period
teratogen: any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period
thalidomide: a sedative widely available in europe, canada and south america in the 1960's. when taken by women between 4th and 6th weeks after conception, produced gross deformities of the embryos arms and legs
toxemia: all illness of the last half of pregnancy, in which the mothers blood pressure increases sharply and her hands, face and feet swell. If untreated it can cause convulsions in the mother and death of the fetus
toxoplasmosis: a paraitic disease caused by eating raw or undercooked meat or by coming in contact with infected cats feces. During the 1st trimester it can lead to eye and brain damage
trimesters: three equal time periods in pre-natal development, each one lasting 3 months
thropoblast: the thin outer ring of cells of the lastocyst, which will become the structures that provide protective covering and nourishment to the new organism
umbilical cord: the long cord connecting the prenatal organism to the placenta, it delivers nutrients and removes waste
vernix: a white, cheese-like substance that covers the fetus and prevents skin from chapping due to constant exposure to amniotic fluid
bonding: parents feelings of affection and concern for the newborn baby
neonatal behavioral assessment scale (NBAS): a test developed to assess the behavior of an infant during the newborn period
non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep: a "regular" sleep state in which the body is quiet and heart rate, breathing, brain wave activity are slow and regular.
postpartum depression: feelings of sadness and withdrawal that appear shortly after childbirth and that continue for weeks or months
rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep: An "irregular" sleep state in which brain-wave activity is similar to that of the waking state. eyes dart beneath the lids; heart rate, blood pressure and breathing are all uneven, and slight body movements occur.
reflex: an inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation
rooming in: an arrangement in which the newborn baby stays in the mothers hospital room all or most of the time
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): the unexpected death, usually during the night, of an infant younger than 1 year of age that remains unexplained after thorough explanation
visual acuity: fineness of visual discrimination
affordances: the action possibilities that a situation offers an organism with certian motor capabilities. Discovering affordances plays a major role in perceptual differentiation
brain plasticity: the ability of other parts of the brain to take over functions of damaged regions. Declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lateralize.
cephalocaudal trend: An organized pattern of physical growth and motor control that procceds from head to tail
cerebral cortex: the largest, most complex structure of the human brain, and the one responsible for the highly developed intelligence of the human species. Surrounds the rest of the brain, much like a half-shelled walnut.
classical conditioning: a form of learning that involving associating a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response
conditioned response: in classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that, through pairing with an unconditional stimulus (UCS), leads to a new response (CR)
conditioned stimulus: in classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that, through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), leads to a new response (CR).
contrast sensitivity: a general principle accounting for early pattern preferences, which states that if babies can detect a difference in contrast between two or more patterns, they will prefer the one with more contrast
differentiation theory: the view that perceptual development involves the detection of increasingly fine grained, invariant features in the environment
dynamic systems theory of motor development: a theory that views new motor skills as reorganizations of previously mastered skills that lead to more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment
epiphyses: growth centers in the bones where new cartilidge cells are produced and gradually harden
experience-dependent brain growth: new growth and refinement of brain structures as a result of specific learning experiences that vary widely across inividuals and cultures. Follows experience-expectant brain growth
experience-expectant brain growth: the young brains rapidly developing organgaization, which depends on ordinary experiences - opportunities to see and touch objects, to hear language and other sounds, and to move about and explore the environment. Provides the foundation for experience-dependent brain growth
fontanels: six soft spots that seperate the bones of the skull at birth
glial cells: cells that are responsible for myliniation
habituation: a gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetative stimulus
imitation: learning by copying the behavior of another person. Also called modeling or observational learning
intermodal perception: perception that combines stimululation from more than one sensory system at a time
invariant features: in differentiation theory of perceptual development, features that remain stable in a constantly changing perceptual world.
kwashiorkor: a disease that is caused by a diet low in protein and that usually appears after weaning, between 1 and 3 years of age. Symptoms include an enlarged belly, swollen feet, hair loss, skin rash, and irritable, listless behavior
lateralization: specialization of functions in the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
marasmus: a disease usually appearing in the first year of life that is caused by a diet low in all essential nutrients. Leads to a wasted body condition
myelination: a process in which neural fibers are coated with an insulating fatty sheath (called myelin) that improves the efficiency of message transfer
neurons: nerve cells that store and transmit information
nonorganic failure to thrive: a growth disorder usually present by 18 months of age that is caused by lack of affection and stimulation
operant conditioning: a form of learning in which a spontaneous behavior is followed by a stimulus that changes the probability that the behavior occured.
pincer grasp: the well coordinated grasp emerging at the end of the first year, involving thumb and finger opposition
prereaching: the poorly coordinated, primitive reaching movements of newborn babies
proximodistal trend: an organization pattern of physical growth and motor control that proceeds from the center of the body outward
punishment: in operant condition, a stimulus (removal of a desirable one or presentation of an un-pleasant one) that decreases the occurrence of a response
recovery: following habituation, an increase in responsiveness to a new stimulus
reinforcer: in operant conditioning, a stimulus that increases the occurence of a response
shape constancy: perception of an objects size as the same, despite changes in the size of its retinal image
size constancy: perception of an objects size as the same, despite changes in the size of its retinal image
skeletal age: an estimate of physical maturity based on development of the bones of the body
synapses: the gap between neurons, acorss which chemical messages are sent
synaptic pruning: loss of connective fibers by seldom stimulated neurons, thereby returning them to an un-committed state so they can support the development of future skills
ulnar grasp: the clumsy grasp of the young infant, in which the fingers close against the palm
unconditioned response: in classical conditioning, a reflexive response that is produced by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
unconditioned stimulus: in classical conditioning, a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response
A not B search error: the error made by 8-12 months old after an object is moved from hiding place A, to hiding place B. Infants in Piaget's substage 4 search for it only in the first hiding place
accommodation: that part of adaption in which new schemes are created and old ones adjusted to produce a better fit with the environment
adaption: in piaget's theory, the process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment. Made up of two processes, assimilation and accomodation
assimilation: that part of adaption in which the external world is interpreted in terms of current schemes
autobiographical memory: representations of special, one time events that are long lasting because the are imbued with personal meaning
babbling: repeating of consonant-vowel combinations in long strings, beginning around 4 months of age
broca's area: a language structure located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere of the cerebreal cortex that controls language and production
central executive: in information processing, the conscious part of working memory that directs the flow of information through the mental system by deciding what to attend to, coordinating incoming information with information already in the system, and selecting, applying, and monitoring stages
child-directed speech: a form of language adults use to speak to young children that consists of short senstences with high pitched, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments, and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts
circular reaction: in piaget's theory, a means of building schemes in which infants try to repeat a chance event caused by their own motor activity
comprehension: in language development, the words and word combinations that children understand
cooing: pleasant vowel-like noises made by infants, beginning around 2 months of age
core knowledge perspective: a perspective that states tht infants are born with a set of innate knowledge systems, or core domains of thought, each of which permits a ready grasp of new, related information and therefor supports early, rapid development of certian aspects of development
deferred imitation: the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present
developmental quotient or DQ: a score on an infant intelligence test, based primarily on perceptual and motor responses. computed in the same manor as an IQ
developmentally appropriate practice: standards devised by the National association for the education of young children that specify program characteristics that meet the developmental and individual needs of young children of varying ages, based on both current research and the reseach and consenus of experts
expressive style: a style of early language learning in which toddlers use language mainly to talk about the feelings and needs of themselves and other people. Initial vocabulary emphasizes social formulas and pronouns
functional play: a type of play involving pleasurable motor activity with or without objects. enables infants and toddlers to practice sensorimotor schemes
home observation for measurement of the environment (HOME): a checklist for gathering information about the quality of childrens home lives through observation and parental interview
intelligent quotient or IQ: a score that reflects an individuals performance on an intelligence test compared with the performances of other individuals of the same age
intentional, goal directed behavior: a sequence of actions in which schemes are deliberatly combined to solve a problem
joint attention: a state in which the child and the cargiver attent to the same object or event and the caregiver offers verbal information. Supports language development
language acquisition device (LAD): in chomsky's theory, a biologcally based innate system for picking up language that permits children, no matter which language they hear, to speak in a rule oriented fashion as soon as they have learned enough words
long-term memory: in information processing, the part of the mental system that contains our permanent knowledge base
make-believe play: a type of play in which children pretend, acting out everyday imaginary activities
mental representation: internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate
mental strategies: in information processing, procedures that operate on and transform information, thereby increasing the efficiacy and flexibility of thinking and the chances information will be maintained
object permanence: the understanding that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight
organization: in piaget's theory, the internal rearrangement and linking together of schemes so that they form a strongly interconnected cognitive system. In information processing, the memory strategy of grouping related terms
overextension: an early vocabulary error in which a word is applied too broadly - that is, to a wider collection fo objects and events than is appropriate.
production: in language development, the words and words combinations that children use.
recall: the type of memory that involves remembering something in the absense of perceptual support
recognition: the simplest form of memory, which involves noticing whether a new experience is identical or similar to a previous one
referential style: a style of early language learning in which toddlers use language mainly to label objects.
scheme: in piaget's theory, a specific structure, or organized way of making sense of experience, that changes with age
sensorimotor stage: piaget's first stage, during which toddlers "think" with their hands, eyes, ears and other sensorimotor equipment. SPans the first 2 years of life
sensory register: in information processing, that part of the mental system in which sights and sounds are represented directly and stored briefly before they decay or are transferred to working or short term memory
telegraphic speech: toddlers two word utterances that, like a telegram, leave out smaller and less important words
underextension: an early vocabulary error in which a rold is applied too narrowly, to a smaller number of objects and events than is appropriate
violation of expectation method: a method in which researchers habituate infants to a physical event and then determine whether they recover responsiveness to (look longer at) a possible event (a variation of the first event that conforms to physical laws) or an impossible event (a variation that violates physical laws). Recovery to the impossible event suggests awareness of that aspect of physical reality.
wernicke's area: a language structure located in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for interpreting language
working, or short term memory: in information processing, the part of the mental system where we actively "work" on a limited amount of information, applying mental strategies to ensure that it will be retained
zone of proximal development: in vygotsky's theory, a range of tasks that the child cannot yet handle alone but can accomplish with the help of more skilled partners
attachment: the strong, affectional tie that humans feel toward special people in their lives
attachment q-sort: an efficient method for asssesing the quality of the attachment bond, in which
autonomy vs shame and doubt: in eriksons theory, the psychological conflict of toddlerhood, which is resolved positively if parents provide young children with suitable guidance and reasonable choices
avoidant attachment: the quality of insecure attachment characterizing infants who usually are not distressed by parental seperation and who avoid the parent when she returns.
basic emotions: emotions that can be directly inferred from facial expressions, such as happiness, interest, suprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust.
basic trust vs mistrust: in eriksons theory, the psychological conflict of infancy, which is resolved positively if caregiving, especially during feeding, is sympathetic and loving
compliance: voluntary obedience to adult requests and commands
difficult child: a child whose temperament is characterized by irregular daily routines, slow acceptance of new experiences, and negative and intense reactions.
disorganized/disoriented attachment: the quality of insecure attachment characteristizing infants who respond in a confused, contradictory fashion when reunited with the parent.
easy child: a child whose temperament is characterized by establishment of regular routines in infancy, general cheerfulness, and easy adaption to new experiences
emotional self regulation: stategies for adjusting our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals
empathy: the abilit to understand anothers emotional state and feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way
ethological theory of attachment: a theory, formulated by bowlby, that views the infants emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promoted survival
goodness of fit model: thomas and chess's model, which states that an effective match, or "good fit", between child rearing and a childs temperament leads to more adaptive functioning, whereas a "poor fit" results in adjustment problems
inhibited, or shy child: a child whose temperament is characterized by negative reaction to and withdrawal from novel stimuli. resembles slow to warm up child.
interactional synchrony: a sensitively tuned "emotional dance" in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well time, rhythmic, appropriate fashion and both partners match emtotional states, especially the positive ones
internal working model: a set of expectations derived from early caregiving experiences concerning the availability of attachment figures, their likelihood of providing support during times of stress, and the self's interaction with those figures. Becomes a model, or guide, for all future close relationships
i-self: a sense of self as agent, who is separate from the surrounding world and can control its own thoughts and actions.
me-self: a sense of self as an object of knowledge and evalutation. consists of all qualities that make the self unique, including physical characteristics, possesions, attitudes, beliefs, and personality traits
resistant attachment: the quality of insecure attachment characterizeding infants who remain close to the parent before departure, are usually distressed when she leaves, and mix clinginess with angry, resistive behavior when she returns.
secure attachment: the quality of attachment characterizing infants who are distressed by parental separation but are easily comforted by the parent when she returns
secure base: the infants use of the familiar caregiver as a point from which to explore the environment and to return to for emotional support
self conscious emotions: emotions that involve injury to or enhancement of the sense of self. ex shame, guilt, envy, pride.
self control: the capacity to resist am impulse to engage in socially disapproved behavior
sensitive caregiving: caregiving involving prompt, consistent, and appropraite responding to infant signals
seperation anxiety: an infant's distressed reaction to the departure of the familiar caregiver
slow to warm up child: a child whose temperament is characterized by inactivity, mild, low key reactions to environmental stimuli, negative mood, and slow adjustment when faced with new experiences
social referencing: relying on a trusted persons emotional reaction to decide how to respond in an uncertain situation
social smile: the smile evoked by the stimulus of the human face. first appears between 6 and 10 weeks
strange situation: a procedure that takes the baby through 8 short episodes, in which brief seperations from, and reunions with the caregiver occur in an unfamiliar playroom. asseses quality of attachment bond
stranger anxiety: the infants expresssion of fear in response to unfamiliar adults. appears in many babies after 6 months of age
temperament: stable individual differences in the quality and intensity of emotional reaction, activity level, attention, and emotional self regulation
uninhibited, or sociable child: a child whose temperament is characterized by positive emotional reaction and approach to novel stimuli.
cerebellum: a brain structure that aids in balance and control of body movement
corpus callosum: the large bundle of fibers that connects the two hemispeheres of the brain
dominant cerebral hemisphere: the hemisphere of the brain responsible for skilled motor action. The left hemisphere is dominant in right handed individuals. In left handed individuals, the right hemisphere may be dominant, or motor and language skills may be shared between the hemispheres
general growth curve: a curve that represents overall changes in body size - rapid growth during infancy, slower gains in early and middle childhood, and rapid growth during adolescence
growth hormone: a pituitary hormone that affects the development of all body tissues except the central nervous system and the genitals
pituitary gland: a gland located near the base of the brain that releases hormones affecting physical growth
psychosocial dwarfism: a growth disorder observed between 2 and 15 years of age. Characterized by very short stature, decreased GH secretion, immature skeletal age, and serious adjustment problems, which help distinguish psychosocial dwarfism from normal shortness. Caused by emotional deprevation.
reticular formation: a brain structure that maintains alertness and consciousness
thyroid-stimulating hormone: a pituitary hormone that simulates the thyroid gland to release thyroxine, which is necessary for normal brain development and body growth.
aboriginal head start: a canadian federal program that provides first nations, inuit, and metis children younger than age 6 with preschool education and nutritional and health services and that encourages parent involvement in program planning and childrens learning
academic programs: educational programs in which teachers structure young childrens learning, teaching letters, numbers, colors, shapes, and other academic skills through formal lessons, often using repetition and drill.
animistic thinking: the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities such as thoughts, wishes, feelings and intentions
cardinality: a principle stating that the last number in a counting sequence indicates the quantity of items in the set
centration: the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect other important feautres
child-centered programs: educational programs in which teachers provide activities from which young children select, and most of the day is devoted to play.
conservation: the understanding that certain characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes.
dual representation: viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol
egocentrism: the inability to distinguish the symbolic viewpoints of others from ones own
emergent literacy: young children's active efforts to contruct literacy knowledge through informal experiences
episodic memory: memory for everday experiences
expansions: Adult responses that elaborate on a child's utterance, increasing its complexity
fast mapping: connecting a new word with an underlying concept after only a brief encounter
guided participation: a concept that calls attention to adult and child contributions to a cooperative dialogue without specifying the precise features of communication, thereby allowing for variations across situations and cultures
heirarchical classification: the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences
intersubjectivity: the process whereby two participants who begin a task with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding
irreversability: the inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point.
metacognition: thinking about thought; awareness of mental activities
mutual exclusivity bias: in the early phase of vocabulary growth, childrens assumptions that words refer entirely seperate (non overlapping) categories
operations: mental representations of actions that obey logical rules
ordinality: a principle specifying order (more-than and less-than) relationships between quantities
overlapping-waves theory: a theory of problem solving, which states that when given challenging problems, children generate a variety of stategies and gradually selec those that result rapid, accurate situations, yielding an overlapping-waves pattern of development
overregularization: application of regular grammatical rules to words that are exceptions
phonological awareness: the ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language, as indicated by sensitivity to changes in sounds within words, to rhyming, and to incorrect pronunciation. A strong predictor of emergent literacy during early childhood and of later reading and spelling achievement.
planning: thinking out a sequence of acts ahead of time aand allocating attention accordingly to reach a goal
pragmatics: the practical, social side of language that is concerned with how to engage in effective and appropriate communication with others
preoperational stage: piaget's second stage, in which rapid growth representation takes place but thought is not yet logical. extends from 2 to 7 years

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