psych review

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Terms

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sleep: periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness-as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma
repression: psychoanalytic theory; defense mechanism that banishes any anxiety causing thoughts or feelings from consciousness
reinforcer: oerant conditioning; any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
limbic system: emotional center of brain
hallucinogens: psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory images in the absence of sensory imput
gestalt: an organized whole; gestalt psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of info into meaningful wholes
circadian rhythm: biological clock; regular body rhythms that occur on a 24 hour cycle
lesion: tissue destruction; naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
confirmation bias: tendency to search for info that confirms one's preconceptions
habituation: decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation
blind spot: point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; no receptor cells
unconditioned response: the unlearned naturally occuring response to the UCS, such as salivation when food is in the mouth
classical (Pavlovian) conditioning: type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli (USC, UCR, CS, and CR)
genome: complete instructions for making an organism; consists of all the genetic material on the chromosomes
language: our spoken, written, or signed words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
interaction: dependence of the effect of one factor (such as environment) on another factor (such as heredity)
variable-ratio schedule: operant conditioning; schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after an unpredictable number of responses
role: set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often automatically
aphasia: any impairment of language
overjustification effect: effect of promising a reward for doing what one already enjoys doing; takes the joy out of the activity
fetus: developing human organism from nine weeks after conception to birth
object permanence: awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
X chromosome: sex chromosome found in both men and women; women have two X's
hormones: chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands that are produced in one tissue and affect another
intensity: brightess or loudness of a color
occipital lobe: cerebral cortex lying a the back of the head; responsible for visual info
withdrawal: discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
nervous system: the body's speedy electrochemical communication system; consits of all the nerves of the CNS and PNS
behaviorism: view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes
representativeness heuristic: judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to match particular prototypes
Frequency theory: theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, enabling us to sense its pitch
fixed-ratio schedule: operant conditioning; schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
Alzheimer's Disease: progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, language, and finally physical functioning
hidden observer: Hilgard's term for describing a hypnotized subject's awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis
psychoactive drug: chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood
norm: understood rule for expected and accepted behavior
parasympathetic nervous system: division of autonomic system that calms the body
personal space: buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies
amneisa: loss of memory
conditioned reinforcer: stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; aka secondary reinforcer
critical period: optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certian stimuli or experinces produce proper development
corpus callosum: large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
binocular cues: depth cues (ex: convergence) that depend on the use of 2 eyes
THC: major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
plasticity: the brain's capacity for modification
hippocampus: neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
deja vu: eerie sensation that "I've experienced this before."
cochlea: coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
longitudinal study: research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time
association areas: areas of the brain not specifically designated for anything; involved in higher mental functions
psychological dependence: psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions
parietal lobe: cerebral cortex lying on top of the head; includes sensory cortex
assimilation: interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas
barbiturates: drugs that depress the activity of the CNS, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
basic trust: according to Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy, said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsible caregivers
overconfidence: tendency to be more confident than correct
behavior genetics: study of relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
endocrine system: body's "slow" chemical communication system; set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream
visual encoding: ecoding of picture images
convergence: binocular depth cue; extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object
grouping: perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
egocentrism: inability of the preoperational child to take another's point of view
cognitive map: mental representation of the layout of one's environment
sensory neurons: carry incoming info from sense receptors to CNS
short-term memory: activated memory that holds a few items briefly
hallucinations: false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
semantic encoding: the encoding of meanings; including the meanings of words
PET scan: visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a task
farsightedness: faraway objects are seen more clearly than closer objects beacuse closer objects focus behind the retina
genes: biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; capable of synthesizing a protein
tranduction: conversion of one form of energy to another; in sensation, transforming stimulus energies into neural impulses
explicit memory: memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare; aka declarative memory
subliminal: below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
perception: process of organizing and interpreting sensory info, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
tolerance: diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug
signal detection theory: theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (niose)
syntax: rules for combining words into gramatically sensible sentences in a given language
CT scan: series of XRAY photos taken from different angles; combined into a composite representation of a slice through the body
mental set: tendency to approach a problem in a particular way; especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not help in the current situation
delta waves: large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
sensorimotor stage: birth-2 years; in Piagets theory where infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
belief perseverance: clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
posthypnotic amnesia: supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis
learning: relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
physical dependence: physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued
partial (intermittent) reinforcement: reinforcing a response only part of the time, results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
extrasensory perception (ESP): controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input (said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition)
mutations: source of all genetic diversity; random error in gene replication that leads to a change in the sequence of nucleotides
maturation: biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior; cannot be hurried along
opiates: opium and its derivatives; such as morphine and heroin
medulla: base of brainstem and controls heartbeat and breathing
hypothalamus: directs several maintenance activities (hunger, thirsty, body temp) and is linked to emotion
pituitary gland: most influential; under influence of the hypothalamus; regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
cognition: all the mental processes associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and knowing
nerves: neural cables containing many axons; part of PNS that connects the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs
REM rebound: tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
discrimination: classical conditioning, learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an UCS
perceptual constancy: perceiving objects as unchanging even as lighting and retinal images change
culture: enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of peaople and transmitted through generations
social clock: culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and adulthood
embryo: developing human organism; from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
sensory adaption: diminshed sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation
imagery: mental pictures; powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
visual cliff: a lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
fetal alcohol syndrome: physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy
spacing effect: tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than cramming
prosocial behavior: positive, constructive, helpful behavior
fixation: inability to see a problem from a new perspective
fromal operational stage: 12 and up; people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
frequency: number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
dualism: presumption that mind and body are 2 distinct entities that interact
long-term memory: relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
opponent process theory: opposing retinal processes (red and green0 enable color vision
sensation: process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
accomodation: adapting one's current schemas to incorporate new info
audition: sense of hearing
cones: retinal receptors that detect color
action potential: neural impulse; brief electric charge that travels down an axon; generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of the membrane
REM sleep: sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; aka paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active
sympathetic nervous system: division of autonomic nervous system that arouses the body
working memory: focuses on processing the briefly stored info
sleep apnea: sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings
rehearsal: conscious repetition of info either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
amygdala: two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of limbic system linked to agression
narcolepsy: a sleep disorder characterized by uncrontollable sleep attacks
operant behavior: behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
inner ear: innermost part of the ear; conatins cochlea, semicircular cnals, and vestibular sacs
memory: persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of info
automatic processing: unconscious encoding of incidental info
conditioned stimulus: an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an UCS, comes to trigger a CR
conduction hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conductc sound waves to the cochlea
hypnosis: social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spntaneously occur
bottom-up processing: analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory info
natural selection: genes that lead to increased reproduction will be passed on to future generations
functional fixedness: tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
Weber's law: principle that, to be perceived as different, 2 stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage
evolutionary psychology: study of evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
difference threshold: minimum difference between 2 stimuli required for detection 50% of the time (just noticeable difference)
feature detectors: nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
nearsightedness: nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina
gender identity: one's sense of being male or female
myelin sheath: layer of fatty tissue surrounding the fibers of neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses
hue: color names; dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light
source amnesia: attributing to the wrong source an event that we have experieced, heard about, learned about, or imagined; aka source misattribution
social learning theory: theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being either rewarded or punished
puberty: period of sexual maturation, during which a person is capable of reproducing
gender role: set of expected behaviors for males and females
cross-sectional study: study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
amphetamines: drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
operant chamber (Skinner box): chamber containing a bar/key that the animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
encoding: processing of info into the memory system
kinesthesis: system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
glial cells: cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
axon: the extensions of a neuron ending in branching terminal fibers through which messages pass to other neurons
Law of Effect: Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
prototype: mental image or best example of a category
dendrite: the bushy branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
frontal lobe: cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in making plans and judgements
wavelength: the distance from the peak of one sound or light wave to the peak of the next
priming: activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
neural networks: interconnected neural cells
proactive interference: disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new info
long-term potentiation (LTP): increase in the synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be the basis for learning and memory
punishment: an event that decreases the behavior it follows
top-down processing: info processing giuded by higher level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
perceptual adaptation: in vision, ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
gender-typing: acquisition of a traditional male or female role
acetylcholine (ACh): neurotransmitter that triggers muscle contraction
menopause: cessation of menstruation
parallel processing: processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously
gener schema theory: theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behaviors accordingly
optic nerve: nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
molecular genetics: subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
computer neural networks: computer circuits that mimic the brain's interconnected neural cells
algorithm: methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarentees solving a particular problem
availability hueristic: estimating the likelihood of events based on their ability in memory
crystallized intelligence: one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; increases with age
attachment: emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress upon seperation
monocular cue: distance cues (ex: linear perspective) that are available to either eye alone
testosterone: male sex hormone present in both males and females; stimulates aggression
spontaneous recovery: reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR
autonomic nervous system: part of the PNS that controls glands and muscles of internal muscles
mnemonics: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organized devices
biological rhythms: periodic physiological fluctuations
self-concept: a sense of one's identity and personal worth
color constancy: perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color despite changes in lighting
rods: retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray
heuristic: simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make jedgements and solve problems effectively
Broca's area: controls muscle expression; directs muscle movements involved in speech (He broc-a his tongue and can no longer speak)
heritability: proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes
respondent behavior: behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus (Skinner's term for learning that took place through classical conditioning)
acquisition: initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus comes to ilicit a CR
morpheme: in a spoken language; smallest unit that carries meaning
echoic memory: momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere sounds and words can still be recalled for 3-4 seconds
observational learning: learning by observing others
split brain: condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers
pupil: adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
flashbulb memory: a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
implicit memory: retention indepedent of conscious recollection; aka procedural memory
middle ear: chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea; contains three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup)
reflex: simple automatic inborn response to a sensory stimulus (knee-jerk response)
gate control theory: theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass through to the brain
temporal lobe: cerebral cortex lying above ears; receives auditory info
Endorphins: "morphine within"; a natural opiate-like neurotransmitter linked to pain control and pleasure
secondary sex characteristics: nonreproductive sexual characteristics (women's breasts and hips)
relearning: memory measure that assesses the amount of time spent earning info for a second time
storage: the retention of encoded info over time
selective attention: at any moment we only focus our awareness on a limited aspect of all that we experience
sensory memory: immediate, initial recording of sensory info in the memory system
recall: person mst retrieve info learned earlier (fill in the blank test)
monism: presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing
sensory cortex: area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations
variable-interval schedule: operant conditioning; schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
serial position effect: our tendency to recall best the first and last items on a list
concept: mental grouping of similar objects, event, ideas, or people
identical twins: twins who develop from a single, fertilized egg
gender: in psych, the characteristics, whether biologically or socially influenced, by which people define male and female
phi phenomenon: illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession
visual capture: tendency for vision to dominate other senses
retina: light-sensitive inner surface of the eye (contains rods and cones)
reticular formation: nerve network in the brainstem that controls arousal
chromosomes: threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
Wernicke's area: controls language comprehension
DNA: complex molecule containing the genetic info that makes up the chromosomes
teratogens: agents that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
cerebellum: "little brain"; coordinates the voluntary movement and balance
recognition: person need only identify items previously learned (multiple choice test)
phoneme: in a spoken language; the smallest distinctive sound unit
intimacy: in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships
fovea: central focal point of the retina; cones cluster here
memes: self-replicating ideas, fashions, and inovations passed fom person to person
electroencephalogram (EEG): amplified recording of the waves of electrical actvity that sweep across the brain surface; measured by electrodes placed on scalp
artificial intelligence (AI): science of programming computer systems to imitate human thought processes
adrenal glands: pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys; secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine, which arouse the body in the time of stress
identity: one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
neuron: nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
generalization: tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses
iconic memory: momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
preoperational stage: 2-6 or seven; Piaget's stage where a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
motor neurons: carry outgoing info from CNS to muscles and glands
night terrors: sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearence of being terrified; occur during stage 4 of sleep and are seldom remembered
grammar: in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
psychophysics: study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience to them
latent content: according to freud; the underlying meaning of a dream
fluid intelligence: one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; decreases with age
zygote: fertilized egg
perceptual set: mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
MRI: uses magnetic fields and radio waves to distinguish between different types of soft tissue
cerebral cortex: fabric of interconnetced neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and info-processing center
shaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal
mearche: first menstrual period
neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that transverse the synaptic gaps between neurons
threshold: level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
dissociation: split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
primary reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a physiological need
alpha waves: relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
framing: the way an issue is posed; can significantly affect decisions and judgements
retinal disparity: binocular depth cue; the brain compares the 2 images received from each eye and the greater the disparity the closer the object is
mood-congruent memory: tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood
semantics: set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language
pitch: tone's highness or lowness
conditioned response: learned response to a previously neutral CS
temperament: person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
concrete operational stage: 6 or 7-11; children gain the mental operations that allow them to think logically about concrete events
LSD: powerful hallucinogenic drug
absolute threshold: minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time
Y chromosome: sex chromosome found only in males; X and Y produces a male
PNS: the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body
motor cortex: area at the rear of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary movement
imprinting: process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
theory of mind: people's ideas about their own and other's mental states-feelings, perceptions, thoughts, and behaviors and what these might predict
depressants: drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
CNS: brain and spinal cord
figure-ground: the organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)
stimulants: drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
unconditioned stimulus: stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically triggers a respnse
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory: theory that the retina contains three different color receptors (one most sensitive to red, one to green, and one to blue) which when stimulated in combination can form any color
modeling: process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Place theory: theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
conservation: principle that properties such as mass, volume, ans number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects (according to Piaget this occurs during the concrete operational stage of development)
iris: ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored part of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
thalamus: directs messages to sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
brain stem: oldest part and central core of the brain; responsible for automatic survival functions
developmental psychology: studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
insomnia: recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
synapse: junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
acuity: sharpness of vision
sensory interactions: principle that one sense may influence another
insight: sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
misinformation effect: incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event
adolescence: transition period from childhood to adulthood; from puberty to independence
somatic nervous system: division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles
environment: every non-genetic influence
primary sex characteristics: body structures that make sexual reproduction possible
dream: sequence of images, emotions, and thoguhts passing through a sleeping person's mind
schema: concept or framework that organizes and interprets info
acoustic encoding: the encoding of sound; especially the sound of words
vestibular sense: sense of body movements and position, including the sense of balance
lens: transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
posthypnotic suddestion: suggestion, made during hypnosis session, to be carried out after the patient is no longer under hypnosis; used to control undesired symptoms and behaviors
sensorineural hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerve (also called nerve deafness)
interneurons: CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inpus and motor outputs
consciousness: our awareness of ourselves and our environment
near-death experience: altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death
retroactive interference: disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old info
biological psychology: branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior
effortful processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
associative learning: learning that events occur together. the events may be 2 stimuli or a response and its consequences
latent learning: learning that occurs but it not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
extinction: diminishing of a CR; occurs when an UCS does not follow a CS; response is no longer enforced
fixed-interval schedule: operant conditioning; schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time period has elapsed
stranger anxiety: fear of strangers that infants commonly display beginning at around 8 months
accommodation: process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objecst on the retina
depth perception: ability to see objects in 3D even though objecs that strike the retina are 2D; allows us to judge distance
parapsychology: study of paranormal phenomena including ESP and psychokinesis
operant conditioning: type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
belief bias: tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning; sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid
fraternal twins: twins who developed from seperate eggs
rooting reflex: baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek to open its mouth and search for a nipple
manifest content: according to freud; remembered story line of a dream
retrieval: process of getting memory info out of storage

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