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Terms
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- testosterone
- The most abundant androgen hormone in the male body.
- dopanime
- A biogenic amine closely related to epinephrine and norepinephrine.
- cerebropinal fluid
- Blood-derived fluid that surrounds, protects, against infection, nourishes, and cushions the brain and spinal cord.
- cerebellum
- Part of the vertebrate hindbrain (rhombencephalon) located dorsally; functions in unconscious coordination of movement and balance.
- open circulatory system
- An arrangement of internal transport in which blood bathes the organs directly and there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid.
- arteries
- A vessel that carries blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body.
- epinephrine
- A hormone produced as a response to stress; also called adrenaline.
- growth hormone
- A protein of about 200 amino acids that affects a wide variety of target tissues and has both direct effects and tropic effects.
- hypothalamus
- The ventral part of the vertebrate forebrain; functions in maintaining homeostasis, especially in coordinating the endocrine and nervous systems; secretes hormones of the posterior pituitary and releasing factors, which regulate the anterior pituitary.
- kwashiorkor
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- serotonin
- A biogenic amine synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan.
- adrenal glands
- An endocrine gland located adjacent to the kidney in mammals; composed of two glandular portions: an outer cortex, which responds to endocrine signals in reacting to stress and effecting salt and water balance, and a central medulla, which responds to nervous inputs resulting from stress.
- thalamus
- One of two integrating centers of the vertebrate forebrain. Neurons with cell bodies in the thalamus relay neural input to specific areas in the cerebral cortex and regulate what information goes to the cerebral cortex.
- brain stem
- The hindbrain and midbrain of the vertebrate central nervous system. In humans, it forms a cap on the anterior end of the spinal cord, extending to about the middle of the brain.
- sphincters
- A ringlike valve, consisting of modified muscles in a muscular tube, such as a digestive tract; closes off the tube like a drawstring.
- hormone
- Any one of the many circulating chemical signals found in all multicellular organisms that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and coordinate the various parts of the organism by interacting with target cells.
- motor division
- The efferent neurons that convey information from the CNS to the effector cells.
- endocrine glands
- A ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream.
- meninges
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- undernourished
- A diet that is chronically deficient in calories.
- somatic nervous system
- The branch of the motor division of the vertebrate peripheral nervous system composed of motor neurons that carry signals to skeletal muscles in response to external stimuli.
- histamine
- A substance released by injured cells that causes blood vessels to dilate during an inflammatory response.
- population
- A group of individuals of one species that live in a particular geographic area.
- Lutenizing hormone
- A protein hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates ovulation in females and androgen production in males.
- sensory division
- The afferent neurons that convey information to the CNS from the sensory receptors that monitor the external and internal environment.
- monocytes
- An agranular leukocyte that is able to migrate into tissues and transform into a macrophage.
- abiotic
- Nonliving chemical and physical factors in the environment.
- thymus
- An endocrine gland in the neck region of mammals that is active in establishing the immune system; secretes several messengers, including thymosin, that stimulate T cells.
- insulin
- A vertebrate hormone that lowers blood glucose levels by promoting the uptake of glucose by most body cells and the synthesis and storage of glycogen in the liver; also stimulates protein and fat synthesis; secreted by endocrine cells of the pancreas called islets of Langerhans.
- estrogens
- The primary female steroid sex hormones, which are produced in the ovary by the developing follicle during the first half of the cycle and in smaller quantities by the corpus luteum during the second half. Estrogens stimulate the development and maintenance of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics.
- peristalsis
- Rhythmic waves of contraction of smooth muscle that push food along the digestive tract.peristalsis
- antibodies
- An antigen-binding immunoglobulin, produced by B cells, that functions as the effector in an immune response.
- pineal gland
- A small endocrine gland on the dorsal surface of the vertebrate forebrain; secretes the hormone melatonin, which regulates body functions related to seasonal day length.
- grey matter
- Regions of dendrites and clusters of nerve-cell bodies within the CNS.
- T-cells
- A type of lymphocyte responsible for cell-mediated immunity that differentiates under the influence of the thymus.
- cyclic AMP
- Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a ring-shaped molecule made from ATP that is a common intracellular signaling molecule (second messenger) in eukaryotic cells (for example, in vertebrate endocrine cells). It is also a regulator of some bacterial operons.
- ecology
- The study of how organisms interact with their environments.
- basal ganglia
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- pancreas
- A gland with dual functions: The nonendocrine portion secretes digestive enzymes and an alkaline solution into the small intestine via a duct; the endocrine portion secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood.
- minerals
- In nutrition, a chemical element other than hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen that an organism requires for proper body functioning.
- spinal cord
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- negative pressure breathing
- A breathing system in which air is pulled into the lungs.
- veins
- A vessel that returns blood to the heart.
- allergies
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- phagocytosis
- A type of endocytosis involving large, particulate substances.
- pituitary gland
- An endocrine gland at the base of the hypothalamus; consists of a posterior lobe (neurohypophysis), which stores and releases two hormones produced by the hypothalamus, and an anterior lobe (adenohypophysis), which produces and secretes many hormones that regulate diverse body functions.
- thyroid gland
- An endocrine gland that secretes iodine-containing hormones (T3 and T4), which stimulate metabolism and influence development and maturation in vertebrates, and cacitonin, which lowers blood calcium levels in mammals.
- epiglottis
- A cartilaginous flap that blocks the top of the windpipe, the glottis, during swallowing, which prevents the entry of food or fluid into the respiratory system.
- natural killer cells
- A nonspecific defensive cell that attacks tumor cells and destroys infected body cells, especially those harboring viruses.
- tropics
- Latitudes between 23.5 degrees north and south.
- principle of allocation
- The concept that each organism has an energy budget, or a limited amount of total energy available for all of its maintenance and reproductive needs.
- medulla oblongota
- is the lowest part of the vertebrate brain; a swelling of the hindbrain dorsal to the anterior spinal cord that controls autonomic, homeostatic functions, including breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, swallowing, digestion, and vomiting.
- gonads
- The male and female sex organs; the gamete-producing organs in most animals.
- sexual reproduction
- A type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the gametes of the two parents.
- ecosystem
- All the organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic factors with which they interact; a community and its physical environment.
- autonomic nervous system
- A subdivision of the motor nervous system of vertebrates that regulates the internal environment; consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
- macrophages
- An amoeboid cell that moves through tissue fibers, engulfing bacteria and dead cells by phagocytosis.
- pheromones
- A small, volatile chemical signal that functions in communication between animals and acts much like a hormone in influencing physiology and behavior.
- vitamins
- An organic molecule required in the diet in very small amounts; vitamins serve primarily as coenzymes or parts of coenzymes.
- essential amino acid
- The amino acids that an animal cannot synthesize itself and must obtain from food. Eight amino acids are essential in the human adult.
- organismal ecology
- The branch of ecology concerned with the morphological, physiological, and behavioral ways in which individual organisms meet the challenges posed by their biotic and abiotic environments.
- biomes
- One of the world's major ecosystems, classified according to the predominant vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular environment.
- biosphere
- The entire portion of Earth inhabited by life; the sum of all the planet's ecosystems.
- biotic
- Pertaining to the living organisms in the environment.
- progestins
- One of a family of steroid hormones, including progesterone, produced by the mammalian ovary; progestins prepare the uterus for pregnancy.
- closed circulatory system
- Circulatory systems in which blood is confined to vessels and is kept separate from the interstitial fluid.
- fertilization
- The union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote.
- hippoocamous
- a
- steroid hormones
- a
- prolactin
- A hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland with a great diversity of effects in different vertebrate species.
- turnover
- The mixing of waters as a result of changing water-temperature profiles in a lake.
- bolus
- A lubricated ball of chewed food.
- hypothalamus
- The ventral part of the vertebrate forebrain; functions in maintaining homeostasis, especially in coordinating the endocrine and nervous systems; secretes hormones of the posterior pituitary and releasing factors, which regulate the anterior pituitary.
- zygote
- The diploid product of the union of haploid gametes in conception; a fertilized egg.
- norepinephrine
- A hormone produced in response to stress.
- climate
- The prevailing weather conditions at a locality
- hemolymph
- In invertebrates with an open circulatory system, the body fluid that bathes tissues.
- cerebral cortex
- The surface of the cerebrum; the largest and most complex part of the mammalian brain, containing sensory and motor nerve cell bodies of the cerebrum; the part of the vertebrate brain most changed through evolution.
- antigen
- A foreign macromolecule that does not belong to the host organism and that elicits an immune response.
- gonadotropins
- Hormones that stimulate the activities of the testes and ovaries; a collective term for follicle-stimulating and luteinizing hormones.
- acquired immunity
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- passive immunity
- Temporary immunity obtained by acquiring ready-made antibodies or immune cells; lasts only a few weeks or months because the immune system has not been stimulated by antigens.
- pharynx
- An area in the vertebrate throat where air and food passages cross; in flatworms, the muscular tube that protrudes from the ventral side of the worm and ends in the mouth.
- melatonin
- A modified amino acid hormone secreted by the pineal gland.
- blood pressure
- The hydrostatic force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel.
- asexual reproduction
- A type of reproduction involving only one parent that produces genetically identical offspring by budding or by the division of a single cell or the entire organism into two or more parts.
- white matter
- Tracts of axons within the CNS.
- Rh factor
- A category of erythrocyte antigen that generates antibodies of the IgG class.
- cerebrum
- The dorsal portion, composed of right and left hemispheres, of the vertebrate forebrain; the integrating center for memory, learning, emotions, and other highly complex functions of the central nervous system.
- endorphinc
- A hormone produced in the brain and anterior pituitary that inhibits pain perception.
- community
- All the organisms that inhabit a particular area; an assemblage of populations of different species living close enough together for potential interaction.