chapter 13-15
Terms
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- social cognition
- use of cognitive processes such as perception, memory, and thoughts in order to make sense of others' behaviors and actions
- social schema
- coherent set of beliefs and expectations that can influence perception of persons, objects, and situations
- prototype
- we store abstract representations of typical features of a group
- exemplar
- individual memories that serve as basis for comparisons
- self-fulfilling prophecy
- expectations that casue a person to behave int he expected manner
- who did experiments on the concept of self-fulfilling properties? Describe the experiment.
- Mark Snyder--had people rate phone call friendliness after seeing picture of caller
- Greenwald and Banaji (1995)
- exp. with subliminal stereotypes of blacks on screen
- attribution
- process of making interferences about causes of behavior
- What is the trend and types of attribution?
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For others, we tend to attribute behaviors to internal properties--fundamental attribution error.
four ourselves, there ist he self-serving bias, including the actor-observer effect where the errors are due to external factors - Jones Harris (1967)
- exp. with essays about Fidel. Told one group readers were forced. The group still believe the essays refelect the writers' true opinions.
- covariation model
- look for factors that covaries with the behavior change; should look for consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
- How is having an attitude helpful?
- helps our actions remain consistent; defensive function (protects beliefs); helps us use knowledge about situations
- three parts of attitude
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cognitive-knowledge
affective-emotions
behavioral-predispostion, not necessarily the action - attitudes formed
- experience and mere exposure
- Who conducted the experiment concerning the mere exposure effect?
- Robert Zajonc (1968); pack of repeated pics, asked people which they preferred
- illusory
- truth effect; believe something after hearing it repeatedly
- attitudes changed by...
- elaboration liklihood model
- central route of the elaboration liklihood model
- high elaboration; careful processeing; change depends on quality of arguments
- peripheral route
- low elaboration; not careful processing; attitude change depends on presence of cues--source characteristics (eg., celebrity commercials)
- Festinger, Schachter, and Back (1956)
- Doomsday cult study; more devotion even though prophecy fails; we want attitude and behavior to be consistent, when conflicting there is inner turmoil; subjects didn't want to be stupid
- Festinger and Carlsmith (1959)
- male subjects asked to play with spools (dull); asked to tell others it was fun and itneresting; paid 0,1,and $20 to lie; then asked in reality how enjoyable was the study; $1 group said it was enjoyable; evidence for cognitive dissonance
- cognitive dissonance
- motivated to make cognitions and beliefs consistent with behavior
- self perception
- developed by Daryl Ben; attitude follows behavior; Freedmand and Fraser conducted exp--foot-in-the-door technique (w/ petitions); also lowball technique (start w/ low price, but not really)
- type of social influence when others increase performance, decrease performance, causes less effort
- social facilitation; social interference; social loafing
- Zajonc (1965)
- relates task difficulty and social influence by appealing to arousal
- The Kitty Genovese case illustrates what?
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bystander effect--more people, less willingness to act individually
diffusion of responsibility--someone else will do it - What experiments illustrate diffusion of responsibility?
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theology students--10% "Good Samaritan" speakers stopped to help someone on way to lecture
anotehr exp--seisures over intercome; if alone in room, more likely to take action - What experiment exhibits conformity?
- Solomon Asch: out of 3 lines which match up to example; 37% will give wrong answer if confederates give wrong answer; more the case if the pressure comes from an in-group
- Why do we conform?
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normative social influence-we want approval
informational social influence-majority opinion is a source of info - What is relationship bewtween pressure and size of group?
- Pressure increases as size increases, but curve levels off and even decreases a bit.
- group polarization
- group opinion becomes polarized; think politics
- groupthink
- compulsion by decision makes to mainain each other's approval at the cost of critical thinking
- What is the significance of Janis's findings?
- found groupthink happening in the government
- Give example of a cultural difference of how we perceive ourselves.
- US-independent; Japan-interdependent
- What factors go into liking and loving?
- familiarity; proximity; similarity; reciprocity
- Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love
- intimacy; passion; commitment
- What factors characterize abnormality?
- statistical deviance; cultural deviance; emotional distress; dysfunction
- insanity
- legally, it is the inability to understand right/wrong during time of the crime; used less than 1% and rarely successful
- psychopathology
- illness based on disruption or disease in bilogical machinery
- Diagnostic labeling effects
- label for psychological problem can lend itself to self fulfilling prophecy
- Rosenhan Study (1970s)
- told admissions they were hearing voices; admitten then acted normal; doctors releaseed them with "schizo in remission"; illustrates diag labeling effects
- DSM-IV
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Axis1-clinical syndromes
Axis2-personality disorders
Axis3-general medical disorders
Axis4-severity of stressors
Axis5-overall assessment - Anxiety Disorders
- genralized AD; panic D; OCD; extreme phobias
- somatoform disorders
- expression of underlying psych problems through physical symptoms; hypochodriasis, somatization disorder, and conversion disorder
- dissociative disorders
- separation of one part of a person's id from another either by dissociative amnesia or dissociative id disorder; dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, dissociative id disorder;l evidence for, diff visual acuities
- mood disorders
- major depression; biopolar disorder (manic depressive)
- dysthymic disorder
- midler form of depression but chronic; along with depression is double depression
- schizophrenic disorders
- disturbances in though processes and emotions and a distortion of reality; disorganized, paranoid, catatonic, undifferentiated
- What is positive/negative symptoms?
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+ emans present halluciations/ delusions
- means lack of normal emotions-a flat affect - personality disorders
- maladaptive and inflexibly; paranoid, antisocial, borderline (instability and lack of control), dependnet
- biomedical therapies
- drug, ECT, and psychosurgery
- drug therapies
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Deniker and Delay-chloromazine to treat schizo;
antipsychotic drugs-antagonists--blocks dopamine (but tardive dyskinesia side effect)
antidepressants-increases serotonin; trisyclics affect norepipherine
antianxiety-works on GABA-tranquilizers - ECT
- for depression; restart nerual firings; but memory could be lost; 50-70% success
- psychosurgery
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developed by Egaas Moniz-remove part of prefrontal lobe
cingulotomy-destroy small limbic tissues - insight therapies
- Freud-psychoanalysis therapy designed to bring unconcious conflicts into awareness; done with free association and dream analysis
- resistance/transference
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resistance-shows therapy is working; discomfort so mind gets defensive
transference-pts start showing liking towards psychologist - cognitive therapies
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Albert Ellis's rational emotive therapy-cross-examiner
Beck's cognitive therapy-co-investigator-client identifies with maladaptive thoughts - humanistic therapies
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client-centered therapy (genuiness, unconditional regard, and empathy)
believes there is incongruency--discrepency between self-concept and reality - What are other humanistic therapies?
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Perls-Gestalt therapy-not as gentle; "empty chair"-get feelings out and open up
existential therapies-problems come from choices - Other therapies?
- group therapy-cost effective, lets you know you aren't alone; family therapy
- behavioral therapies
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Mary Cover Jones-eliminate phobias
Conditioning and Consequences - systemic desensitization
- Joseph Wolpe-counter conditioning-anxiety hierarchy, techniques for relaxation, and combing the previous 2
- aversion therapy
- associate unpleasant feeling with bad habit
- token economies
- give token which could be exhanged for goods when there is good behavior; take away tokens when there is bad behavior
- punishments should be limited why?
- damage relationship between pts and therapists; only teaches what not to do; raises ethical questions
- Philadephia (Sloane) experiment testing clinical therapies
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1group-psychodynamic
2group-behavioral
3group-control-"waiting list"
results-1and2 showed faster improvement but afterawhile 1=2=3 - meta-analysis
- many diff studies are compared statistically on some common evaluation measure; common standard, or effect size, is the standardized measure of diff between treatment and control conditions
- Smith's overall meta-analysis
- large treatment advantage; few diff between treatments
- spontaneous remission
- get better on own, but it takes longer