Animal physiology350chapter1-4
Terms
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- adaptation
- evolution through natural selection leading to an organism whose physio, anatomy, and behavior are matched to the demands of its enviro
- acclimatization
- a persisting spectrum of changes due to prolonged exposure to enviromental conditions such as high or low temp.
- acclimation
- a persisting change in a specific funtion due to prolonged exposure to an environmental condition such as high or low temp.
- deoxyribonucleic acid
- the class of nucleic acids resposible for hereditary transmission and for the coding of amino acid sequences of proteins
- mutations
- a heritable alteration in genetic material
- feedback
- the return of ouput to the input part of a system
- negative feedback
- sign of the output is inverted before it is fed back to the input so as to stabilize the output
- set point
- point that system is to be held (homeostasis)
- positive feedback
- error signal is amplified and unchanged, reinforcing the original disturbance (AP, childbird, vomiting)
- disturbance
- change in the state of a controlled system
- signal inversion
- sign or direction of ouput is opposite to that of input
- conformers
- an animal whose internal conditions tend to parallel those of the external enviro
- regulators
- an animal that used biochemical, physiological, behavioral, or other mechs to maintain internal homeostasis.
- solvent
- capable of breaking down molecular constituents
- electromotive force
- (emf) the potenial difference across the terminals of a battery or any other source of electric energy
- electronegativity
- affinity for electrons
- dipole
- a molecule having separate regions of net negative and net positive charge, so that one end acts as a positive pole and the other as a negative pole
- hydrogen bonds
- a weak electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen atom bound to a highly electronegative element in a molecule and another highly electronegative atom in the same or a different molecule
- dielectric constant
- a measure of the degree to which a substance is able to store electric charge under an applied voltage
- solvation
- the clustering of solvent molecules around a solute
- hydration
- solvation when the solvent is water
- amphipathic
- bearing both hydrophylic and hydrophobic groups
- hydrophilic
- having an affinity for water
- hydrophobic
- lacking an affinity for water
- micelle
- a microscopic particle made from an aggregation of amphipathic molecules in solution
- moles
- avogadro's number (6.023 X 10*23) of molecules of an element or compound: equal to the molecular weight in grams
- molality
- the number of moles of solution in a kilogram of a pure solvent
- molarity
- the number of moles of solute in a liter of solution
- osmotic pressure
- the pressure that can potentially be created by osmosis between 2 solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane
- osmolarity
- the effective osmotic pressure of a solution
- colligative properties
- characteristics of a solution that depend on the number of molecules in a given volume
- activity
- the capacity of a substance to react with another substance; the effective concentration of an ionic species in the free state
- activity coefficient
- a proportionality factor obtained by dividing the effective reactive concentration of an ion (as indicated) by its properties in a solution) by its molar concentration.
- hydronium ion
- (H3O+) a hydrogen ion (H+) cmbined with a water molecule (H2O)
- hydroxyl ion
- OH-
- base
- a proton acceptor
- acid
- a proton donor
- amphoteric
- having opposite characteristics; behaving as either an acid or a base
- pH
- Number of H+ ions in solution
- pN
- the pH of a solution at neutrality
- neutral
- pure water at 25 degrees celsius
- zwitterion
- a molecule carrying both negatively and positively ionized or ionizable sites
- isoelectric point
- pH at which the net charge of molecule is zero
- optimal pH
- at which there is the highest probability of catalysis
- Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
- pH = pK' + log([H+ acceptor]/[H+ donor]) the formula for calculation of the pH of a buffer solution
- coulombs
- (c) a unit of electric charge; equal to the amount of charge transferred in 1 second by 1 ampere (A) of current
- faraday
- a measure of electric charge, -96,487 C X mol-1
- current
- the flow of electric charge. A current of 1 coulomb(C) per second is called an ampere (A). By convention, the direction of current flow is the direction in which a positive charge moves (ie from the anode to the cathode)
- amperes
- (A) a unite of electric current equal to the current produced through a 1 ohm (V) resistance by a potential differeence of 1 volt (V); the movement of 1 coulomb (c) of charge per second
- voltage
- difference in potential
- volts
- (V) a unit of electromotive force; the force required to induce a 1 amp current to flow thru a 1 ohm resistance
- resistance
- (R ) the property that hinders the flow of electric current. The unit of measure is the ohm, defined as the resistance that allows 1 amp of current to flow when a potential drop of 1 volt exists across the resistance
- ohms
- a unit of electrical resistance, equivalent to the resistance of a column of mercury 1mm2 in cross-section and 106 cm long
- ohm's law
- I = V/R; the strength of an electric current, I, varies directly as the voltage, V, and inversely as the resistance, R.
- resistivity
- the resistance of a conductor 1 cm in length and 1 cm2 in cross-sectional area
- conductance
- (electrical)G a measure of the ease with which a conductor carries an electric current; the unit of measure is the siemen (S), reciprocal of the ohm
- siemen
- (S) the unit of electrical conductance; reciprocal of the ohm
- conductivity
- the intrinsic ability of a substance to conduct electric current; the reciprocal of resistivity
- capacitance
- the ability to store electric charge by electrostatic means. The unit of measure for capacitance is the farad (F), which describes the proportionality between charge stored and potential for a given voltage: C = q/V = coulombs per volt.
- farad
- (F) the unit of electrical capacitance
- cathode
- negative electrode or pole to which positively charged ions are attracted
- anode
- a positive electrode or pole to which negatively charged ions are attracted
- electrical mobility
- the rate at which an ionic species megrates in solution
- affinity sequence
- (selectivity sequency) the order of preference with which an electrostatic site will bind different species of counterions
- triglyceride
- a neutral molecule composed of three fatty acid residues esterified to glycerol; formed in animals from carbs
- saturated
- in reference to fatty acid chains, indicates absence of double bonds
- unsaturated
- in reference to fatty acid molecules, having some carbon-carbon double bonds
- phospholipids
- a phosphorus-containing lipid that hydrolyzes to fatty acids, glycerol, and a nitrogenous compound; makes up cell membranes
- lipophilic
- having an affinity for lipids
- carbohydrates
- aldehyde of ketone derivatives of alcohol; utilized by animal cells primarily for the storage and supply of chemical energy; most important are the sugars and starches
- polymer
- a compound composed of a linear sequence of simple molecules or residues
- starch
- a polysaccharide of plant origin (C6H10O5)n
- glycogen
- a highly branced D-glucose polymer found in animals
- peptide bonds
- the center bond of the -C(0)-NH-group, created by the condensation of amino acids into peptides
- peptide
- a molecule consisting of a linear array of amino acid residues. Protein molecules are made of one or more peptides: short peptide chains are called oligopetptides and long chains are polypeptides
- primary structure
- the sequence of amino acid residues of a polypeptide chain
- secondary structure
- the repeating conformation adopted by a polypeptide segment (eg alpha helix)
- teriary structure
- the ways in which a polypeptide chain is folded or bent to produce the overall conformation of the molecule
- quaternary structure
- the characteristic way in which the subunits of a protein containing more than one polypeptide chain are combined
- alpha helix
- helical secondary structure of many porteins in which each NH group is hydrogen-bonded to a CO group at a distance equivalent to three amino acid residues; the helix makes a complete turn for each 3.6 residues
- beta pleated sheet
- a protein secondary structure in which two or more distinct amino acid chains lie side by side, held together by hydrogen bonds
- van der waals forces
- the close-range, relatively weak attraction exhibited between atoms and molecules with hydrophobic properties
- disulfide linkage
- a bond between sulfide groups that determines protein tertiary structure by linking together portions of polypeptide chains
- denaturation
- alteration of destruction of the normal nature of a substance by chemical or physical means
- molecular chaperones
- a family of proteins that features prominently in protein folding and the preservation of the complexly folded state of proteins
- ribonucleic acid
- a nucleic acid made up of adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, ribose, and phosphoric acid, responsible for the transcription of DNA and its translation into protein
- nucleic acids
- nucleotide polymers of high molecular weight
- nucleotides
- a component of nucleic acids, made up of a purine or pyrimidine base, a ribose or deoxyribose sugar, and a phosphate group
- triphosphodiester linkages
- in ATP, when broken release energy for enerdergonic reactions
- transcription
- the formation of an RNA chain of a complementary base sequence from the informational base sequence of DNA
- messenger RNA
- (mRNA) a type of RNA that is responsible for transmission of the informational base sequence of DNA to the ribosomes
- metabolism
- the totality of physical and chemical processes in anabolism, catabolism, and cell energetics
- metabolic pathways
- a sequence of enzymatic reactions that changes one substance into another
- energy
- capacity to perform work
- potential energy
- stored energy that can be released to do work
- kinetic energy
- energy inherent in the motion of a mass
- chemical energy
- energy contained in the chemical bonds holding molecules together
- first law of thermodynamics
- the principle that energy is neither created nor lost in any process
- second law of thermodynamics
- the principle that all natural or spontaneous processes are accompanied by an increase in entropy
- entropy
- a measure of that portion of energy not available for work in a closed system; a measure of molecular randomness
- free energy
- the energy available to do work at a given temperature and pressure
- endergonic reaction
- characterized by a concomitant absorption of energy
- exergonic reaction
- characterized by a concomitant release of energy, often accompanied by a release of heat
- adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- an energy-rich nucleotide used as a common energy currency by all cells
- activation energy
- the energy required to bring reactant molecules to velocities sufficiently high to break or make chemical bonds
- catalyst
- a substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being used up in the reaction
- enzyme
- a protein with catalytic properties
- substrate
- a substance that is acted on by an enzyme
- proteolytic
- protein hydrolyzing
- active site
- the catalylic region of an enzyme molecule
- enzyme activity
- a measure of the catalytic potency of an enzyme: the number of substate molecules that react per minute per enzyme molecule
- turnover number
- a measure of the catalytic potency of an enzyme, usually given as reactions catalyzed per second
- cofactors
- an atom, ions, or molecule tht combines with an enzyme to activate it
- coenzyme
- an organic molecule that combines with an apoenzyme to form a functioning enzyme
- apoenzyme
- the portein portion of an enzyme, which combines with a coenzyme to form a functioning enzyme
- cytosol
- the unstructured aqueous phase of the cytoplasm between the structured organelles
- rate constant
- (specific reaction rate) the proportionality factor by which the concentration of a reactant in an enzymatic reactin is related to the reaction rate
- michaelis Menten equation
- the equation describing the dependence of initial reaction velocity on substrate concentation for catalyzed reactions
- Lineweaver Burk equation
- straight line transformation of the michaelis-menten equation
- competitive inhibition
- reversible inhibition of enzyme activity caused by competition between a substate and an inhibitor for the active site of the enzyme
- noncompetitive inhibition
- enzyme inhibition due to alteration or destruction of the active site
- allosteric site
- an area of an enzyme that binds a substance other than the substrate, changing the conformation of the protein so as to alter the catalytic effectiveness of the active site.
- end product inhibition
- inhibition of a biosynthetic pathway by the end product of the pathway
- anaerobic
- oxygen free
- aerobic
- require a supply of oxygen for cellular respiration
- mitochondria
- membrane-enclosed organelles where APT is produced during aerobic metabolism
- reduction
- the addition of electrons to a substance
- oxidation
- a loss of electrons or an increase in the net positivity of an atom or molecule. Biological oxidations are usually achieved by removal of hydrogen from a molecule
- reductant
- the electron donor in a redox reaction
- oxidant
- the electron acceptor in a redox reaction
- redox pair
- two compounds, molecules, or atoms involved in mutual reduction and oxidation
- reduction potential
- a measurement of the tendency of a reductant to yield electrons in a redox reaction, expressed in volts
- electron pressure
- a measure of the tendency to donate electrons
- plasma membrane
- cell membrane; surface membrane
- lipid bilayer
- the continuous double layer of lipid molecules that forms the basic structure of a biological membrane
- peripheral proteins
- membrane-lined proteins that do not extend thru the membrane
- integral proteins
- proteins spanning the plasma membrane that form selective filters and active transport devices that get nutrients into and cellular products and waste out of the cell
- phosphoglycerides
- glycerol based lipids found in biological membranes
- sphingolipids
- a lipid formed by a fatty acid attached to the nitrogen atom of sphingosine, a long chain, oily amino alcohol; occurs primarily in the membranes of neurons
- sterols
- a group of solid, primarily unsaturated polycyclic alcohols
- fluid mosaic model
- the accepted model for bio membranes, in which globular proteins are integrated into the lipid bilayer
- cholesterol
- a natural sterol, precursor to the steroid hormones
- diffusion
- dispersion of atoms, molecules, or ions as a result of random thermal motion
- fick diffusion equation
- an equation defining the rate of solute diffusion through a solvent
- influx
- the movement of solute or solvent into a cell across the plasma membrane
- efflux
- the movement of solute or solvent out of a cell across the plama membrane
- net flux
- the sum of influx and efflux thru a membrane or other material
- permeability
- the ease with which substances can pass through a membrane
- osmosis
- the movement of pure solvent from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentation through a semipermeable membrane
- diffusion coefficient
- a coefficient relating the rate of diffusional flux to concentration gradient, path length, and the area across which diffusion occurs
- paritition coefficient
- ratio of the distribution of a substance between two different liquid phases (eg oil and water)
- hydrostatic pressure
- force exerted over an area due to pressure in a fluid
- osmotic flow
- the solvent flux due to osmotic pressure
- isoosmotic
- having the same osmotic pressure
- hypoosmotic
- containing a lower concentration of osmotically active constituents than the solution of reference
- hyperosmotic
- containing a greater concentration of osmotically active constituents than the solution of reference
- hypotonic
- having a lower tonicity than a reference solution
- hypertonic
- having a higher tonicity than a reference solution
- tonicity
- the relative osmotic pressure of a solution under given conditions
- isotonic
- having a tonicity equal to that of a reference solution.