Bio 1 Lecture, Spring08

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methyl group: structure: CH3; compound: methylated compounds; ex: 5-methyl cytidine; properties: addition of a methyl group to DNA affects expression of genes, arrangement of methyl groups in male and femal sex hormones affects their shape and function
histone acetylation: The attachment of acetyl groups to certain amino acids of histone proteins.
cuboidal: The cubic shape of a type of epithelial cell.
testes: The male reproductive organ, or gonad, in which sperm and reproductive hormones are produced.
important lipids: fats; phospholipids; steroids
insertion sequences: simplest transposable elements, exist only in bacteria; has single gene for transposase, an enzyme catalyzing movement of the insertion sequence from one site to another w/in genome
central vacuole: A membranous sac in a mature plant cell with diverse roles in reproduction, growth, and development.
acrosomal reaction: The discharge of hydrolytic enzymes from the acrosome, a vesicle in the tip of a sperm, when the sperm approaches or contacts an egg.
aldoses: sugars with the carbonyl group at the end of the carbon chain (aldehyde sugars)
Potential Medical Issues of gene therapy: immune responses; risk of inducing cancer
binary fission: The type of cell division by which prokaryotes reproduce. Each dividing daughter cell receives a copy of the single parental chromosome.
wavelength: The distance between crests of waves, such as those of the electromagnetic spectrum.
growth factor: A protein that must be present in the extracellular environment (culture medium or animal body) for the growth and normal development of certain types of cells; a local regulator that acts on nearby cells to stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation.
exergonic reaction: A spontaneous chemical reaction, in which there is a net release of free energy.
structural proteins: support (ex: silk fiber; keratin in hair, horns, feathers and other skin appendages)
carbohydrate: general form = CH2O; names end in "ose"; water soluble, form rings in water; taste sweet; often pentoses or hexoses (5,6 carbons)
animalia: part of (2 of 4) the eukaryotic kingdom, multicellular, ingest other organisms
connective tissue: Animal tissue that functions mainly to bind and support other tissues, having a sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix.
blastocoel: The fluid-filled cavity that forms in the center of the blastula embryo.
functional groups: characteristic groups often attached to skeletons of organic molecules, determine chemical properties; most commonly involved in chemical rxns
exon: A coding region of a eukaryotic gene. They are separated from each other by introns.
viroid: A plant pathogen composed of molecules of naked circular RNA only several hundred nucleotides long.
active site: The specific portion of an enzyme that attaches to the substrate by means of weak chemical bonds.
columnar: The column shape of a type of epithelial cell.
Down syndrome: A human genetic disease caused by presence of an extra chromosome 21; characterized by mental retardation and heart and respiratory defects.
organelle: Structure inside eukaryotic cells that performs specialized functions.
nucleus: the chromosome-containing organelle of a eukaryotic cell
nervous tissue: Tissue made up of neurons and supportive cells.
ribosome: A cell organelle constructed in the nucleolus and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm; consists of rRNA and protein molecules, which make up two subunits.
oxidizing agent: The electron acceptor in a redox reaction.
Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR): is a laboratory technique for amplifying a defined piece of a ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecule. The RNA strand is first reverse transcribed into its DNA complement or complementary DNA, followed by amplification of the resulting DNA using polymerase chain reaction
taxonomic scheme: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
activator: A protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a specific gene.
regulatory gene: A gene that codes for a protein, such as a repressor, that controls the transcription of another gene or group of genes.
proton pump: An active transport mechanism in cell membranes that uses ATP to force hydrogen ions out of a cell, generating a membrane potential in the process.
centrosome: Material present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells, important during cell division; the microtubule-organizing center.
missense mutation: The most common type of mutation, a base-pair substitution in which the new codon makes sense in that it still codes for an amino acid.
integral protein: Typically a transmembrane protein with hydrophobic regions that completely spans the hydrophobic interior of the membrane.
monohybrid: An organism that is heterozygous with respect to a single gene of interest. All the offspring from a cross between parents homozygous for different alleles are this. For example, parents of genotypes AA and aa produce a offspring of genotype Aa.
cytoplasm: The entire contents of the cell, exclusive of the nucleus, and bounded by the plasma membrane.
tight junction: A type of intercellular junction in animal cells that prevents the leakage of material between cells.
inner cell mass: develops into embryo & forms extraembryonic membranes
receptor-mediated endocytosis: The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances.
multipotent: replace nonreproducing specialized cells
DNA cloning/molecular cloning: yields multiple copies of a gene or other DNA segment
helicase: An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks.
kinetic energy: The energy of motion, which is directly related to the speed of that motion. Moving matter does work by imparting motion to other matter.
cytoskeleton: A network of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments that branch throughout the cytoplasm and serve a variety of mechanical and transport functions.
chlorophyll a: A type of blue-green photosynthetic pigment that participates directly in the light reactions.
external fertilization: eggs shed by female are fertilized by sperm in external environment
molecular shape: biological molecules reconize and interet with each other based on molecular shape; similar shapes, similar functions; change the shape, change the function
cellular respiration: The most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway for the production of ATP, in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel.
chemical energy: Energy stored in the chemical bonds of molecules; a form of potential energy.
ion channel: Protein channel in a cell membrane that allows passage of a specific ion down its concentration gradient.
chiasma: The X-shaped, microscopically visible region representing homologous chromatids that have exchanged genetic material through crossing over during meiosis.
rough ER: That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes.
reduction: The addition of electrons to a substance involved in a redox reaction.
compound: substance consisting of 2 or more elements in a fixed ratio (does not necessarily have the same traits as its elements)
sister chromatids: Replicated forms of a chromosome joined together by the centromere and eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis II.
enzyme-substrate complex: A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate molecule(s)
cohesion: clinging together of molecules of same substance
fibronectin: A glycoprotein that helps cells attach to the extracellular matrix
oxidation: The loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction.
adenosine triphosphate (ATP): one of the three phosphates may be split off as a result of a reaction in water, releasing energy
provirus: Viral DNA that inserts into a host genome.
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome): The name of the late stages of HIV infection, defined by a specified reduction of T cells and the appearance of characteristic secondary infections.
plasmid: small circular DNA w/ 1 or a few genes
bacteriophage: A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.
importance of simple sugars: energy source for cells; their carbon skeletons are raw material for the synthesis of other types of small organic molecules, such as amino acids and fatty acids; made into disaccharides and polysaccharides
F plasmid: cells that contain this function as DNA donors during conjugation; F+ cells transfer DNA to F- recipients; chromosomal genes can be transferred during conjugation when donor cell's F factor is integrated into chromosome
autosome: A chromosome that is not directly involved in determining sex, as opposed to a sex chromosome.
trioses: sugars made of a 3-carbon chain
Leydig cells: A cell that produces testosterone and other androgens and is located between the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
polyploidy: A chromosomal alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete chromosome sets.
pinocytosis: A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.
acrosome: A vesicle in the tip of a sperm containing hydrolytic enzymes and other proteins that help the sperm reach the egg.
visible light: That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum detected as various colors by the human eye, ranging in wavelength from about 380 nm to about 750 nm.
transposable genetic element: A segment of DNA that can move within the genome of a cell by means of a DNA or RNA intermediate.
gametogenesis: The process by which gametes are produced in the mammalian body.
plastid: One of a family of closely related plant organelles that includes chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and amyloplasts (leucoplasts).
hydroxyl group: structure = -OH; compound = alcohols; ex: ethanol; functional properties: polar, can form hydrogen bonds with water, helping dissolve organic compounds such as sugars
gastrulation: cells are rearranged into 3 distinct layers
bioenergetics: The flow of energy through an animal, taking into account the energy stored in the food it consumes, the energy used for basic functions, activity, growth, reproduction, and regulation, and the energy lost to the environment as heat or in waste.
carrier: In genetics, an individual who is heterozygous at a given genetic locus, with one normal allele and one potentially harmful recessive allele. The heterozygote is phenotypically normal for the character determined by the gene but can pass on the harmful allele to offspring.
strongest bonds in organisms: covalent bonds, form cell's molecules
nonsense mutation: A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.
translocation: (1) An aberration in chromosome structure resulting from attachment of a chromosomal fragment to a nonhomologous chromosome. (2) During protein synthesis, the third stage in the elongation cycle when the RNA carrying the growing polypeptide moves from the A site to the P site on the ribosome. (3) The transport of organic nutrients in the phloem of vascular plants.
Barr body: A dense object lying along the inside of the nuclear envelope in female mammalian cells, representing an inactivated X chromosome.
mesoderm: The middle primary germ layer of an early embryo that develops into the notochord, the lining of the coelom, muscles, skeleton, gonads, kidneys, and most of the circulatory system.
glycoprotein: A protein covalently attached to a carbohydrate.
genetic engineering: direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes
homeostasis: the ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment in the presence of a changing external environment (steady-state physiological condition of the body). uses negative and positive feedback
peripheral protein: A protein appendage loosely bound to the surface of a membrane and not embedded in the lipid bilayer.
nuclear envelope: The membrane in eukaryotes that encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm.
96% and 4% of living matter are made of these elements: C, O, H, N and P, S, Ca, K, Na, Cl, Mg
cell differentiation: specialization of cells in structure & function
light microscope (LM): An optical instrument with lenses that refract (bend) visible light to magnify images of specimens.
properties & processes associated with life: order, reproduction-biogenesis, energy utilization (processing), growth and development, response to environment, homeostasis, evolutionary adaptations
alcohol fermentation: The conversion of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol.
oncogene: A gene found in viruses or as part of the normal genome that is involved in triggering cancerous characteristics.
catalyst: A chemical agent that changes the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
base: solution with H+ lower than water (ex: bleach); soak-up H+
gametophyte: In organisms undergoing alternation of generations, the multicellular haploid form that mitotically produces haploid gametes that unite and grow into the sporophyte generation.
lysosome: A membrane-enclosed sac of hydrolytic enzymes found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
physiology: study of biological functions organism performs
vegetal pole: The portion of the egg where most yolk is concentrated; opposite of animal pole.
stroma: The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.
citric acid cycle: A chemical cycle involving eight steps that completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose molecules to carbon dioxide; occurs within the mitochondrion; the second major stage in cellular respiration.
convergent extension: A process in which the cells of a tissue layer rearrange themselves, so that the sheet of cells becomes narrower (converges) and longer (extends).
photosystem I: One of two light-capturing units in a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane; it has two molecules of P700 chlorophyll a at its reaction center.
proteoglycan: A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells, rich in carbohydrate.
spore: In the life cycle of a plant or alga undergoing alternation of generations, a meiotically produced haploid cell that divides mitotically, generating a multicellular individual, the gametophyte, without fusing with another cell.
semiconservative model: Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand.
proton: particle in the nucleus with a positive charge of +1 and an atomic mass number of 1 Dalton.
anion: negatively charged ion (gained electrons)
one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis: The premise that a gene is a segment of DNA that codes for one polypeptide.
Calvin cycle: The second of two major stages in photosynthesis (following the light reactions), involving atmospheric CO2 fixation and reduction of the fixed carbon into carbohydrate.
primer: A polynucleotide with a free 3´ end, bound by complementary base pairing to the template strand, that is elongated during DNA replication.
in situ hybridization: uses fluorescent dyes attached to probes to identify location of specific mRNAs in place in intact organism
chemiosmosis: An energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work, such as the synthesis of ATP. Most ATP synthesis in cells occurs by chemiosmosis.
unsaturated fats: one or more C=C double bonds; vegetable fats; fish fats; liquid at room temp
reaction (rxn): makinga nd breaking chemical bonds, leads to changes in composition of matter
transduction (1): A DNA transfer process in which phages carry bacterial genes from one host cell to another. (2) In cellular communication, the conversion of a signal from outside the cell to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response.
temperate phage: A phage that is capable of reproducing by either the lytic or lysogenic cycle.
nucleotide excision repair: The process of removing and then correctly replacing a damaged segment of DNA using the undamaged strand as a guide.
transmission electron microscope (TEM): A microscope that passes an electron beam through very thin sections; primarily used to study the internal ultrastructure of cells.
trait: Any detectable variation in a genetic character.
fat's function: energy storage (stored in adipose cells); adipose tissue also cushions vital organs and insulates the body
hydration shell/sphere: when ionic compound is dissolved in water, each ion is surrounded by a sphere of water molecules
transformation: (1) The conversion of a normal animal cell to a cancerous cell. (2) A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.
germ layers: Three main layers that form the various tissues and organs of an animal body.
monosaccharides: the simplest carbohydrate. known as simple sugars, monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are generally some multiple of CH2O; classified by location of carbonyl group and # of carbons in carbon skeleton
prophage: A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome.
nucleosome: The basic, bead-like unit of DNA packaging in eukaryotes, consisting of a segment of DNA wound around a protein core composed of two copies of each of four types of histone.
host range: The limited range of host cells that each type of virus can infect and parasitize.
leading strand: The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' ( 3' direction.
hydrophobic: water-fearing (oily molecules)
action spectrum: A graph that depicts the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving a particular process.
defensive proteins: protection against disease (ex: antibodies combat bacteria and viruses)
cellulose: a polymer of glucose; a major component of the tough wall of plant cells
3D shape of carbon atom with 4 single covalent bonds: the bonds angle toward the corners of an imaginary tetrahedron (~109.5 degrees)
Northern blotting: combines gel electrophoresis of mRNA followed by hybridization with a probe on a membrane
deletion: (1) A deficiency in a chromosome resulting from the loss of a fragment through breakage. (2) A mutational loss of one or more nucleotide pairs from a gene.
phosphorylated: Referring to a molecule that has been the recipient of a phosphate group.
induction: The process in which one group of embryonic cells influences the development of another, usually by causing changes in gene expression.
transcription: The synthesis of RNA on a DNA template.
monosaccharide examples: glucose; fructose; galactose
cleavage: The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane; specifically, the succession of rapid cell divisions without growth during early embryonic development that converts the zygote into a ball of cells.
neutron: a non-charged nuclear particle with the same mass as the proton
model organisms: species that are representative of a larger group & easily studied
asexual reproduction: A type of reproduction involving only one parent that produces genetically identical offspring by budding or by the division of a single cell or the entire organism into two or more parts.
cyclic electron flow: A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves only photosystem I and that produces ATP but not NADPH or oxygen.
prokaryotic cells: lack membrane-bound organelles; lack a nucleus; contain DNA, butplasma membrane present not in a separate compartment); smaller than eukaryotic; almost always have tough external wall; single-celled organisms (Archaea and Bacteria);
repressor: A protein that suppresses the transcription of a gene.
sex chromosome: One of the pair of chromosomes responsible for determining the sex of an individual.
ice implications: if ice sank, no life in the oceans because lakes/ocean would not thaw out
variation: Differences between members of the same species.
ribosome: A cell organelle constructed in the nucleolus and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm; consists of rRNA and protein molecules, which make up two subunits.
feedback inhibition: A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway.
ribozyme: An enzymatic RNA molecule that catalyzes reactions during RNA splicing.
proto-oncogene: A normal cellular gene corresponding to an oncogene; a gene with a potential to cause cancer but that requires some alteration to become an oncogene.
inducer: A specific small molecule that inactivates the repressor in an operon.
anaerobic: Lacking oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that lacks oxygen and may be poisoned by it.
Ovaries: female gonads, lie in abdominal cavity, large number of follicles which enclose ova, also secrete hormones
beta oxidation: A metabolic sequence that breaks fatty acids down to two-carbon fragments that enter the citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA.
kinetic energy: energy of motion
photon: A quantum, or discrete amount, of light energy.
chromatin: The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome. When the cell is not dividing, chromatin exists as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope.
when do sugars often form into rings?: in aqueous solutions
template strand: The DNA strand that provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA transcript.
mitochondrial matrix: The compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane and containing enzymes and substrates for the Krebs cycle.
extracellular matrix (ECM): The substance in which animal tissue cells are embedded, consisting of protein and polysaccharides.
signal peptide: A stretch of amino acids on a polypeptide that targets the protein to a specific destination in a eukaryotic cell.
why is water's specific heat high?: breaking H bonds in water requires energy before you even get the actual molecules to move faster (to heat up)
repetitive DNA: Nucleotide sequences, usually noncoding, that are present in many copies in a eukaryotic genome. The repeated units may be short and arranged tandemly (in series) or long and dispersed in the genome.
smooth muscle: A type of muscle lacking the striations of skeletal and cardiac muscle because of the uniform distribution of myosin filaments in the cell.
integrin: A receptor protein built into the plasma membrane that interconnects the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton.
thylakoid: A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy to chemical energy.
blastomere: A small cell of an early embryo.
C4 plant: A plant that prefaces the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO2 into a four-carbon compound, the end product of which supplies CO2 for the Calvin cycle.
benign tumor: A mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of origin.
pentoses: sugars made of a 5-carbon chain
carotenoid: An accessory pigment, either yellow or orange, in the chloroplasts of plants. By absorbing wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, carotenoids broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis.
cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk): A protein kinase that is active only when attached to a particular cyclin.
cell fractionation: The disruption of a cell and separation of its organelles by centrifugation.
cleavage furrow: The first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.
nucleolus: (plural, nucleoli) A specialized structure in the nucleus, formed from various chromosomes and active in the synthesis of ribosomes
transcription initiation complex: The completed assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase bound to the promoter.
hydrolysis: disassembles polymers into monomers, a reverse of the dehydration reaction
water facts: 3/4 of planet; organisms are 70-95% water; could be prerec for life
organelle: One of several formed bodies with specialized functions, suspended in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
aminopeptidase: An enzyme found within the small intestine that splits off one amino acid at a time, beginning at the opposite end of the polypeptide containing a free carboxyl group.
NADP+: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, an acceptor that temporarily stores energized electrons produced during the light reactions.
hierarchy of organization (micro): (in order) atoms, complex biological molecules (macromolecules), subcellular organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, complex organism
NAD+: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, a coenzyme present in all cells that helps enzymes transfer electrons during the redox reactions of metabolism.
osmoregulation: The regulation of solute and water concentrations in body fluids by organisms living in hyperosmotic, hypoosmotic, and terrestrial environments.
trisomic: Referring to a cell that has three copies of a particular chromosome, instead of the normal two.
hybridization: In genetics, the mating, or crossing, of two true-breeding varieties.
joule (J): unit of energy where 1J = 0.239 cal; 1 cal = 4.184 J
plasma membrane: The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, thereby regulating the cell's chemical composition.
flagellum: (plural, flagella) A long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion. The flagella of prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in both structure and function.
metastasis: The spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site.
Southern blotting: A hybridization technique that enables researchers to determine the presence of certain nucleotide sequences in a sample of DNA.
cell division: The reproduction of cells.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate): An adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in cells.
promoter: A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing RNA.
crossing over: The reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during prophase I of meiosis
stem cell: relatively unspecialized cell that can reproduce itself indefinitely & differentiate into specialized cells of one or more types
metaphase plate: An imaginary plane during metaphase in which the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are located midway between the two poles.
amino group: structure-NH2; name of compound: amines; ex: glycine; properties: basic, ionized (+1) under cellular conditions
implications of water's specific heat: moderates coastal temp; stabilizes earth temp; organisms can maintain stable temp
F1 generation: The first filial, or hybrid, offspring in a series of genetic crosses.
somatic cell: Any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell.
heredity: The transmission of traits from one generation to the next
diffusion: The spontaneous tendency of a substance to move down its concentration gradient from a more concentrated to a less concentrated area.
CAM plant: A plant that uses crassulacean acid metabolism, an adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions, first discovered in the family Crassulaceae. Carbon dioxide entering open stomata during the night is converted into organic acids, which release CO2 for the Calvin cycle during the day, when stomata are closed.
chromatin: The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome. When the cell is not dividing, this complex exists as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope.
quantitative character: A heritable feature that varies continuously over a range rather than in an either-or fashion.
double helix: The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent polynucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape.
cardiac muscle: A type of muscle that forms the contractile wall of the heart. Its cells are joined by intercalated discs that relay each heartbeat.
poly-A tail: The modified end of the 3' end of an mRNA molecule consisting of the addition of some 50 to 250 adenine nucleotides.
trophoblast: outer epithelium of blastocyst, initiates implantation in uterus
oxidative phosphorylation: The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain.
lipids: only class of large biological molecules that do not form polymers; hydraphobic (consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form nonpolar bonds); some are 'polymers' of fatty acid
vesicle: A sac made of membrane inside of cells.
squamous: The flat, tile-like shape of a type of epithelial cell.
corepressor: A small molecule that cooperates with a repressor protein to switch on operon off.
eukarya: single- and multi-celled organisms
scanning electron microscope (SEM): A microscope that uses an electron beam to scan the surface of a sample to study details of its topography.
crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM): A type of metabolism in which carbon dioxide is taken in at night and incorporated into a variety of organic acids.
P site: One of a ribosome's three binding sites for tRNA during translation. This site holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain.
transformation: uptake & expression of foreign DNA
oocyte: partially developed egg
duplication: An aberration in chromosome structure due to fusion with a fragment from a homologous chromosome, such that a portion of a chromosome is repeated.
hypertonic: In comparing two solutions, referring to the one with a greater solute concentration.
sexual reproduction: creation of offspring by fusion of male gamete (sperm) & female gamete (egg) to form zygote
malignant tumor: A cancerous tumor that is invasive enough to impair the functions of one or more organs.
genetic map: An ordered list of genetic loci (genes or other genetic markers) along a chromosome.
alleles: Alternative versions of a gene that produce distinguishable phenotypic effects.
non-cyclic electron flow: A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems and produces ATP, NADPH, and oxygen. The net electron flow is from water to NADP+.
nondisjunction: An error in meiosis or mitosis, in which both members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or both sister chromatids fail to move apart properly.
telomere: The protective structure at each end of a eukaryotic chromosome. Specifically, the tandemly repetitive DNA at the end of the chromosome's DNA molecule. See also repetitive DNA.
concentration gradient: An increase or decrease in the density of a chemical substance in an area. Cells often maintain concentration gradients of ions across their membranes. When a gradient exists, the ions or other chemical substances involved tend to move from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated.
telophase: The fifth and final stage of mitosis, in which daughter nuclei are forming and cytokinesis has typically begun
DNA ligase: A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.
oogenesis: The process in the ovary that results in the production of female gametes.
anchorage dependence: The requirement that to divide, a cell must be attached to the substratum.
sporophyte: In organisms undergoing alternation of generations, the multicellular diploid form that results from a union of gametes and that meiotically produces haploid spores that grow into the gametophyte generation.
entropy: A quantitative measure of disorder or randomness, symbolized by S.
kinetochore: A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.
photosynthesis: The conversion of light energy to chemical energy that is stored in glucose or other organic compounds; occurs in plants, algae, and certain prokaryotes.
epistasis: A type of gene interaction in which one gene alters the phenotypic effects of another gene that is independently inherited.
atoms: the smallest component of an element that still has properties of the element, consisting of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a charged cloud of electrons.
four major atomic components of organic molecules: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen
first law of thermodynamics: The principle of conservation of energy. Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
catabolic pathway: A metabolic pathway that releases energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds
∝ glucose: are helical; form starch
charged molecules, what kind of bonds?: ionic or polar covalent (water, salt)
autotroph: An organism that obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms or substances derived from other organisms. Autotrophs use energy from the sun or from the oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules from inorganic ones.
endergonic reaction: A non-spontaneous chemical reaction, in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings.
cleavage: cell division creates hollow ball of cells (a "blastula")
contractile vacuole: A membranous sac that helps move excess water out of the cell.
ectoderm: The outermost of the three primary germ layers in animal embryos; gives rise to the outer covering and, in some phyla, the nervous system, inner ear, and lens of the eye.
heterotroph: An organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products.
enzymes: specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions in cells
tumor-suppressor gene: A gene whose protein products inhibit cell division, thereby preventing uncontrolled cell growth (cancer).
viral envelope: A membrane that cloaks the capsid that in turn encloses a viral genome.
redox reaction: A chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; also called oxidation-reduction reaction.
operon: A unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions.
facultative anaerobe: An organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present but that switches to fermentation under anaerobic conditions.
sexual reproduction: A type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the gametes of the two parents.
linkage map: A genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossing over of homologous chromosomes.
E site: One of a ribosome's three binding sites for tRNA during translation. This site is the place where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome.
turgid: Very firm. A walled cell become turgid if it has a greater solute concentration than its surroundings, resulting in entry of water.
substrate-level phosphorylation: The formation of ATP by directly transferring a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism.
female internal genitalia: Vagina, Cervix, and Uterus
prometaphase: The second stage of mitosis, in which discrete chromosomes consisting of identical sister chromatids appear, the nuclear envelope fragments, and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes.
thermodynamics: (1) The study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter. See first law of thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics. (2) A phenomenon in which external DNA is taken up by a cell and functions there.
steroid: organic molecules with a common carbon skeleton in the form of 4 fused rings
potential energy: The energy stored by matter as a result of its location or spatial arrangement.
Okazaki fragment: A short segment of DNA synthesized on a template strand during DNA replication. Many Okazaki fragments make up the lagging strand of newly synthesized DNA.
four main classes of large biological molecules? What are their monomer forms?: carbohydrates (sugar), lipids (fatty acids), proteins (amino acids), nucleic acids (nucleotides);
electron transport chain: A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.
list bond strength from highest to lowest: nonpolar covalent bonds; polar covalent bonds; ionic bond; hydrogen bond; van der Waals interactions
fragmentation: breaking of body into pieces, some or all of which develop into adults (ex - starfish)
RNA splicing: The removal of noncoding portions (introns) of the RNA molecule after initial synthesis.
gastrula: a three-layered structure that has a primitive gut
van der Waals interactions: attractions as a result of hot spots between molecules that are close together
F2 generation: Offspring resulting from interbreeding of the hybrid F1 generation.
storage proteins: storage of amino acids (ex: ovalbumin in egg white)
terminator: In prokaryotes, a special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene. It signals RNA polymerase to release the newly made RNA molecule, which then departs from the gene.
food vacuole: A membranous sac formed by phagocytosis.
preformation: 18th century theory that egg or sperm contains miniature infant (homunculus) which becomes larger during development
cells (history): 1665 Robert Hooke named them; 1600's Antonie van Leeuwenhok first saw a live cell; 1839 Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann came up with the cell theory
anticodon: A specialized base triplet at one end of a tRNA molecule that recognizes a particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule.
reaction center: Complex of proteins associated with two special chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor. Located centrally in a photosystem, this complex triggers the light reactions of photosynthesis. Excited by light energy, one of the chlorophylls donates an electron to the primary electron acceptor, which passes an electron to an electron transport chain.
polyribosome (polysome): An aggregation of several ribosomes attached to one messenger RNA molecule.
tetrad: A paired set of homologous chromosomes, each composed of two sister chromatids. Tetrads form during prophase I of meiosis.
free energy of activation: The amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start; also called activation energy.
polymer: long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds
intron: A noncoding, intervening sequence within a eukaryotic gene.
aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase: An enzyme that joins each amino acid to the correct tRNA.
starch (amylose) & glycogen: polysaccharides of thousands of glucoses; store energy; allows organisms to store thousands of glucoses in 1 polysaccharide molecule. The glycogen breaks down glucose in the digestive tract, and is synthesized from glucose in the liver
deletion: (1) A deficiency in a chromosome resulting from the loss of a fragment through breakage. (2) A mutational loss of one or more nucleotide pairs from a gene.
steroids: lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused frings
protists (multiple kingdoms): unicellular and simple multicellular
mutation: A rare change in the DNA of a gene, ultimately creating genetic diversity.
substrate: The reactant on which an enzyme works.
hydrocarbons: organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen; hydrophobic; can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy
element: matter composed of atoms that all have the same atomic number (protons)
dynein: A large contractile protein forming the side-arms of microtubule doublets in cilia and flagella.
P generation: The parent individuals from which offspring are derived in studies of inheritance
ovarian cycle: The cyclic recurrence of the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase in the mammalian ovary, regulated by hormones.
basal body: A eukaryotic cell organelle consisting of a 9 + 0 arrangement of microtubule triplets; may organize the microtubule assembly of a cilium or flagellum; structurally identical to a centriole.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy: A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by progressive weakening and a loss of muscle tissue.
cortical reaction: Exocytosis of enzymes from cortical granules in the egg cytoplasm during fertilization.
prophase: The first stage of mitosis, in which the chromatin is condensing and the mitotic spindle begins to form, but the nucleolus and nucleus are still intact.
endoderm: The innermost of the three primary germ layers in animal embryos; lines the archenteron and gives rise to the liver, pancreas, lungs, and the lining of the digestive tract.
nuclease: An enzyme that hydrolyzes DNA and RNA into their component nucleotides.
sex-linked gene: A gene located on a sex chromosome.
pH: =log 1/H+
episome: A genetic element that can exist either as a plasmid or as part of the bacterial chromosome.
glycolysis: The splitting of glucose into pyruvate. This is the one metabolic pathway that occurs in all living cells, serving as the starting point for fermentation or aerobic respiration.
potential energy: energy mater has because of its location or structure (electrons of an atom differ in their amounts of potential energy)
gel electrophoresis: The separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.
heat: The total amount of kinetic energy due to molecular motion in a body of matter. Heat is energy in its most random form.
transport proteins: transport of other substances (ex:hemoglobin, transport proteins)
transposon: A transposable genetic element that moves within a genome by means of a DNA intermediate.
genomic imprinting: Phenomenon in which expression of an allele in offspring depends on whether the allele is inherited from the male or female parent.
centromere: The centralized region joining two sister chromatids.
DNA polymerase: An enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of new DNA at a replication fork by the addition of nucleotides to the existing chain.
cell differentiation: The structural and functional divergence of cells as they become specialized during a multicellular organism's development; dependent on the control of gene expression.
fast block to polyspermy: The depolarization of the egg membrane within 1-3 seconds after sperm binding to the vitelline layer. The reaction prevents additional sperm from fusing with the egg's plasma membrane.
transcription factor: A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of specific genes.
aquaporin: A transport protein in the plasma membrane of a plant or animal cell that specifically facilitates the diffusion of water across the membrane (osmosis).
sticky end: A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.
RNA interference (RNAi): A technique to silence the expression of selected genes in nonmammalian organisms. The method uses synthetic double-stranded RNA molecules matching the sequence of a particular gene to trigger the breakdown of the gene's messenger RNA.
selective permeability: A property of biological membranes that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.
coenzyme: An organic molecule serving as a cofactor. Most vitamins function as coenzymes in important metabolic reactions.
Ionic bonds: one atom strips electrons from bonding partner; compound held together by attraction between cation & anion; weaker than covalent bonds
mitotic (M) phase: The phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis.
cooperativity: An interaction of the constituent subunits of a protein whereby a conformational change in one subunit is transmitted to all the others.
triglycerides: composed of glycerol and fatty acids; OH from glycerol and H from fatty acid break off in a dehydration reaction
R plasmids: confer resistance to various antibiotics
middle lamella: A thin layer of adhesive extracellular material, primarily pectins, found between the primary walls of adjacent young plant cells.
Fallopian (uterine) tubes: ova is drawn into the tubes by cilia; egg uses this to travel from ovary to uterus
mesophyll: The ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis and specialized for photosynthesis.
geometric isomers: have the same covalent partnerships, but they differ in their spatial arrangements (cis isomer and trans isomer)
polygenic inheritance: An additive effect of two or more gene loci on a single phenotypic character.
cell cycle: An ordered sequence of events in the life of a eukaryotic cell, from its origin in the division of a parent cell until its own division into two; composed of the M, G1, S, and G2 phases.
nucleoid: A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.
glycosidic linkage: a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reactions
chlorophyll: A green pigment located within the chloroplasts of plants. Chlorophyll a can participate directly in the light reactions, which convert solar energy to chemical energy.
restriction sites: A specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a cut siteby a restriction enzyme.
electrogenic pump: An ion transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane.
amniocentesis: A technique of prenatal diagnosis in which amniotic fluid, obtained by aspiration from a needle inserted into the uterus, is analyzed to detect certain genetic and congenital defects in the fetus.
plante: part of (1 of 4) the eukaryotic kingdom, multicellular, phtosynthetic autotrophs
transposable elements: "jumping genes" - contribute to genetic shuffling in bacteria
codominance: The situation in which the phenotypes of both alleles are exhibited in the heterozygote.
proton-motive force: The potential energy stored in the form of an electrochemical gradient, generated by the pumping of hydrogen ions across biological membranes during chemiosmosis.
conjugation: In prokaryotes, the direct transfer of DNA between two cells that are temporarily joined. In ciliates, a sexual process in which two cells exchange haploid micronuclei.
chromosome: A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins. See chromatin.
clone: (1) A lineage of genetically identical individuals or cells. (2) In popular usage, a single individual organism that is genetically identical to another individual. (3) As a verb, to make one or more genetic replicas of an individual or cell. See also gene cloning.
homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a given gene.
non-competitive inhibitor: A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing its conformation so that it no longer binds to the substrate.
alternative RNA splicing: A type of regulation at the RNA-processing level in which different mRNA molecules are produced from the same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments are treated as exons and which as introns.
cyclic AMP (cAMP): Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a ring-shaped molecule made from ATP that is a common intracellular signaling molecule (second messenger) in eukaryotic cells (for example, in vertebrate endocrine cells). It is also a regulator of some bacterial operons.
reverse transcriptase: An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.
ketoses: sugars with the carbonyl group in the middle of the carbon chain (ketone sugars)
cytologenetic map: Chart of a chromosome that locates genes with respect to chromosomal features.
adhesion: clinging together of molecules of different substances
nuclear lamina: A netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus.
restriction fragment analysis: DNA fragments produced by restriction enzyme digestion of DNA molecule are sorted by gel electrophoresis
aster: A radial array of short microtubules that extends from each centrosome toward the plasma membrane in a cell undergoing mitosis.
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P): The carbohydrate produced directly from the Calvin cycle.
map unit: A unit of measurement of the distance between genes. One map unit is equivalent to a 1% recombination frequency.
chemical equilibrium: point at which there is no net change of concentrations of reactants and products
conjugation: bacteria trade plasmids
smooth ER: That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes.
vaccine: A harmless variant or derivative of a pathogen that stimulates a host's immune system to mount defenses against the pathogen.
spectrophotometer: An instrument that measures the proportions of light of different wavelengths absorbed and transmitted by a pigment solution.
aneuploidy: A chromosomal aberration in which one or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number.
fermentation: A catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose without an electron transport chain and that produces a characteristic end product, such as ethyl alcohol or lactic acid.
carboxyl group: structure: -COOH; compound: carboxylic acids; ex: acetic acid; properties: acidic,found in cells in the ionized (-1) form
chitin (pronounced "kite-en"): a structural polysaccharide; found in the exoskeleton of arthropods; provides structural support for the cell walls of many fungi; used to make surgical thread; Like cellulose, but with nitrogen
disaccharide: 2 monosaccharides strung together
cell theory: fundamental unit; all calls come from preexisting cells; contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division; All known living things are made up of cells
phosphate group: structure: -OPO3(-2); compound: organic phosphates; ex: glycerol phosphate; properties: contributes negative charge to the molecule of which it is a part, has the potential to react with water, releasing energy
wobble: A violation of the base-pairing rules in that the third nucleotide (5' end) of a tRNA anticodon can form hydrogen bonds with more than one kind of base in the third position (3' end) of a codon.
glucose and cellular respiration: series of reactions start with glucose
mitosis: A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. This process conserves chromosome number by equally allocating replicated chromosomes to each of the daughter nuclei.
origin of replication: Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins.
transport protein: A transmembrane protein that helps a certain substance or class of closely related substances to cross the membrane.
saturated fats: no C=C double bonds; have max # of hydrogen atoms; animal fats; solid at room temp
genetic recombination: General term for the production of offspring that combine traits of the two parents.
competitive inhibitor: A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it mimics.
histone: A small protein with a high proportion of positively charged amino acids that binds to the negatively charged DNA and plays a key role in its chromatin structure.
operator: In prokaryotic DNA, a sequence of nucleotides near the start of an operon to which an active repressor can attach. The binding of the repressor prevents RNA polymerase from attaching to the promoter and transcribing the genes of the operon.
myosin: A type of protein filament that interacts with actin filaments to cause cell contraction.
passive transport: The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane.
acetyl CoA: Acetyl coenzyme A; the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme.
cytoplasmic streaming: A circular flow of cytoplasm, involving myosin and actin filaments, that speeds the distribution of materials within cells.
tetravalence: having 4 valence electrons
metabolism: The totality of an organism's chemical reactions, consisting of catabolic and anabolic pathways.
ion: atom or molecule that has a change due to gain or loss of an electron
energy coupling: In cellular metabolism, the use of energy released from an exergonic reaction to drive an endergonic reaction.
three domains: Bacteria (prokaryotic cells); Archaea (prokaryotic cells); Eukarya (eukaryotic cells)
true-breeding: Referring to plants that produce offspring of the same variety when they self-pollinate.
cell: organism's basic units of structure and function
domain: (1) A taxonomic category above the kingdom level. The three domains are Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. (2) An independently folding part of a protein.
cytosol: The semifluid portion of the cytoplasm.
flaccid: Limp. A walled cell is flaccid in surroundings where there is no tendency for water to enter.
RNA processing: Modification of RNA before it leaves the nucleus, a process unique to eukaryotes.
phage: A virus that infects bacteria; also called a bacteriophage.
activation energy: The amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start; also called activation energy.
orbital: three-dimensional space where electrons are found 90% of the time (each electron shell (level) has a specific number of orbitals (2 and 8))
electrochemical gradient: The diffusion gradient of an ion, representing a type of potential energy that accounts for both the concentration difference of the ion across a membrane and its tendency to move relative to the membrane potential.
morphogenesis: process by which animal takes shape
dihybrid: An organism that is heterozygous with respect to two genes of interest. All the offspring from a cross between parents doubly homozygous for different alleles. For example, parents of genotypes AABB and aabb produce offspring of genotype AaBb.
matter: anything that takes up space and has mass; organisms are composed of matter
interphase: The period in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing. Cellular metabolic activity is high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size may increase. This phase accounts for 90% of the cell cycle.
gonads: organs that produce gametes
cytochrome: An iron-containing protein, a component of electron transport chains in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
contractile and motor proteins: movement (ex: actin and myosin in muscles, proteins in cilia and flagella)
sickle-cell disease: A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele that results in the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein; characterized by deformed red blood cells that can lead to numerous symptoms.
valence: indicates how many electrons an atom is missing from its outermost shell (2 for first ring, 8 for all rings after that). Indicates the number of bonds an atom is likely to form
C3 plant: A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a three-carbon compound as the first stable intermediate.
gene therapy: alteration of an afflicted individual's genes
hydrogen bond: weak attraction between a slightly positive H and another slightly negative atom (usually O or N). results in many properties of water
transposon: A transposable genetic element that moves within a genome by means of a DNA intermediate.
eukaryotic kingdoms: plantae; animalia: fungi; protists
mole: Avogadro's number (6.023 * 10^23) of molecules
translation: The synthesis of a polypeptide using the genetic information encoded in an mRNA molecule. There is a change of languagefrom nucleotides to amino acids.
evolutionary convergence: reflects different species' adaptations to similar environmental challenge
lagging strand: A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates in a direction away from the replication fork.
free energy: The portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system. The change in free energy of a system is calculated by the equation ΔG = ΔH - T Δs, where T is absolute temperature.
telomerase: An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres. The enzyme includes a molecule of RNA that serves as a template for new telomere segments.
thylakoid: A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy to chemical energy.
organogenesis: The development of organ rudiments from the three germ layers.
phage: A virus that infects bacteria; also called a bacteriophage.
fluid mosaic model: The currently accepted model of cell membrane structure, which envisions the membrane as a mosaic of individually inserted protein molecules drifting laterally in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.
isomers: compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties (three types: structural isomers, geometric isomers, enantiomers)
water characteristics: cohesive behavior; ability to moderate temp; expansion upon freezing; versatile solvent
macromolecule: a giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a condensation reaction (a covalent connection)
diploid cell: A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent.
origin of replication: Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins.
geometric isomers arise from what?: the inflexibility of double bonds
loose connective tissue: The most widespread connective tissue in the vertebrate body. It binds epithelia to underlying tissues and functions as packing material, holding organs in place.
F factor: A fertility factor in bacteria; a DNA segment that confers the ability to form pili for conjugation and associated functions required for the transfer of DNA from donor to recipient. It may exist as a plasmid or be integrated into the bacterial chromosome.
genotype: The genetic makeup, or set of alleles, of an organism.
what do the weak chemical bonds do?: reinforce shapes of large molecules and help molecules adhere to each other
insertion sequence: The simplest kind of transposable element, consisting of inverted repeats of DNA flanking a gene for transposase, the enzyme that catalyzes transposition.
reducing agent: The electron donor in a redox reaction.
euchromatin: The more open, unraveled form of eukaryotic chromatin that is available for transcription.
Huntington's disease: A human genetic disease caused by a dominant allele; characterized by uncontrollable body movements and degeneration of the nervous system; usually fatal 10 to 20 years after the onset of symptoms.
genetics: The scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation.
chromatin: The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome. When the cell is not dividing, they exist as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope.
genomic library: collection of recombinant vector clones produced by cloning DNA fragments from an entire genome
expression vector: a cloning vector that contains a highly active prokaryotic promoter that helps expression of cloned eukaryotic genes in bacterial host cells
3D shape of molecule with two carbon atoms that are joined by a double bond: flat (all bonds are on the same plane)
sulfhydryl group: structure: -SH; compound: thiols; ex: cysteine; properties: two sulfhydryl groups can react, forming a covalent bond, which helps stabilize protein structure. cross=linking of cysteines in hair proteins maintains the curliness or straightness of hair
multifactorial: Referring to a phenotypic character that is influenced by more than one gene and environmental factors.
prokaryotic cell: A type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in the domains Bacteria and Archaea.
glycolipid: A lipid covalently attached to a carbohydrate.
electromagnetic spectrum: The entire spectrum of radiation ranging in wavelength from less than a nanometer to more than a kilometer.
density-dependent inhibition: The phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another.
enzyme: A protein serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that changes the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
transduction: new genes tag along with f DNA
chromosome: A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each of these consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins. See chromatin.
insertion: A mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotide pairs to a gene.
G1 phase: The first growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.
TATA box: A promoter DNA sequence crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex.
lysogenic cycle: A phage replication cycle in which the viral genome becomes incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage and does not kill the host.
carbon's most frequent partners: oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen
norm of reaction: The range of phenotypes produced by a single genotype, due to environmental influences.
MPF: Maturation-promoting factor (M-phase-promoting factor); a protein complex required for a cell to progress from late interphase to mitosis. The active form consists of cyclin and a protein kinase.
uncharged molecules, what kind of bonds?: nonpolar covalent (oils)
meiosis: A two-stage type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells with half the chromosome number of the original cell.
nonpolar covalent bond: electrons equally distributed between atoms of molecule; not water soluble (hydrophobic); most common in biological matter
anabolic pathway: A metabolic pathway that synthesizes a complex molecule from simpler compounds.
point mutation: A change in a gene at a single nucleotide pair.
kcal: kilocalories (1,000cal); what you see on food packages
ß glucose: are straight; form cellulose; H atoms on one strand can bond with OH groups on other strands. parallel cellulose molecules held together this way are grouped into microfibrils, which form strong building materials for plants
criterion for classifying sugars: where the carbonyl group is located (aldehyde sugar vs. ketone sugar); size of the carbon skeleton; spacial arrangement around asymmetric carbons
parental type: An offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the parental phenotypes.
mitochondrion: (plural, mitochondria) An organelle in eukaryotic cells that serves as the site of cellular respiration
signal-recognition particle (SRP): A protein-RNA complex that recognizes a signal peptide as it emerges from the ribosome.
The functional groups most important in the chemistry of life: hydroxyl; carbonyl; carboxyl; amino; sulfhydryl; phosphate; methyl (not as important)
meiosis: A two-stage type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells with half the chromosome number of the original cell.
law of segregation: Mendel's first law, stating that each allele in a pair separates into a different gamete during gamete formation.
acrosome: A vesicle at the tip of a sperm cell that helps the sperm penetrate the egg.
transformation: (1) The conversion of a normal animal cell to a cancerous cell. (2) A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.
cytoplasmic determinants: The maternal substances in the egg that influence the course of early development by regulating the expression of genes that affect the developmental fate of cells.
corpus luteum: A secreting tissue in the ovary that forms from the collapsed follicle after ovulation and produces progesterone.
simple epithelium: An epithelium consisting of a single layer of cells that all touch the basal lamina.
what do animals use for energy storage: glycogen
asymmetric carbon: a carbon atom that is attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms
phagocytosis: A type of endocytosis involving large, particulate substances, accomplished mainly by macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells.
photorespiration: A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, generates no ATP, and decreases photosynthetic output; generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of carbon dioxide.
biotechnology: manipulation of organisms or their genetic components to make useful products
parthenogenesis: development of new individual from unfertilized egg (ex - Komodo Dragons)
menstrual cycle: In higher primates, a type of reproductive cycle in which the nonpregnant endometrium is shed as a fluid discharge through the cervix into the vagina.
Estrous Cycle: A reproductive cycle characteristic of female mammals except higher primates, in which the nonpregnant endometrium is reabsorbed rather than shed, and sexual response occurs only during mid-cycle at estrus.
genomic imprinting: Phenomenon in which expression of an allele in offspring depends on whether the allele is inherited from the male or female parent.
mutagen: A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.
meiosis II: The second division of a two-stage process of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells with half the chromosome number of the original cell.
covalent bonds: sharing of outermost electrons between atoms, very strong; nonpolar covalent bond and polar covalent bond
archaea: single-celled organisms; extreme environments (salty lakes, hot springs)
p53 gene: The guardian angel of the genome, a gene that is expressed when a cell's DNA is damaged. Its product, a protein, functions as a transcription factor for several genes.
phospholipids: two fats and a phosphate group attached to glycerol; fat tail = hydrorphobic. phosphate group & its attachments = hydrophilic; examples: membranes, soaps; when added to water, self-assemble into micelles, liposomes, bilayers; major component of all cell membranes
alternative RNA splicing: A type of regulation at the RNA-processing level in which different mRNA molecules are produced from the same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments are treated as exons and which as introns.
cation: ion with a po, positively charged ion (lost electrons)
trans fats: partially hydrogenated oils (margarine, crisco); solid at room temp; found in almost all processed food (cis = H on same side of C=C bond; trans = opposite sides)
bacteriophage: A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.
tonicity: The ability of a solution to cause a cell within it to gain or lose water.
phagocytosis: A type of endocytosis involving large, particulate substances, accomplished mainly by macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells.
reading frame: The way a cell's mRNA-translating machinery groups the mRNA nucleotides into codons.
R plasmid: A bacterial plasmid carrying genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics.
carbonyl group: structure: >CO; compound: ketones (within a carbon skeleton) and aldehydes (at the end of the carbon skeleton); ex: acetone (ketone) and propanal (aldehyde); a ketone and an aldehyde may be structural isomers with different properties, also found in sugars, giving rise o two major groups of sugars: aldoses and ketoses
wild type: An individual with the normal (most common) phenotype.
Punnett square: A diagram used in the study of inheritance to show the results of random fertilization in genetic crosses.
structural isomers: differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms
proteins: one or more polypeptides (polymers build from the same set of 20 amino acids); account for more than half of dry mass of most cells
cell wall: A protective layer external to the plasma membrane in plant cells, bacteria, fungi, and some protists. In plant cells, the wall is formed of cellulose fibers embedded in a polysaccharide-protein matrix. The primary cell wall is thin and flexible, whereas the secondary cell wall is stronger and more rigid and is the primary constituent of wood.
absorption spectrum: The range of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light.
multigene family: A collection of genes with similar or identical sequences, presumably of common origin.
virulent phage: A phage that reproduces only by a lytic cycle.
retrotransposon: A transposable element that moves within a genome by means of an RNA intermediate, a transcript of the retrotransposon DNA.
RNA polymerase: An enzyme that links together the growing chain of ribonucleotides during transcription.
active transport: The movement of a substance across a biological membrane against its concentration or electrochemical gradient with the help of energy input and specific transport proteins.
skeletal muscle (striated muscle): Muscle generally responsible for the voluntary movements of the body.
cholesterol: an important steroid, component in animal cell membranes; acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids, such as hormones
glycoprotein: A protein covalently attached to a carbohydrate.
F plasmid: The plasmid form of the F factor.
pattern formation: The development of a multicellular organism's spatial organization, the arrangement of organs and tissues in their characteristic places in three-dimensional space.
tRNA (transfer RNA): An RNA molecule that functions as an interpreter between nucleic acid and protein language by picking up specific amino acids and recognizing the appropriate codons in the mRNA.
rRNA (ribosomal RNA): The most abundant type of RNA, which together with proteins forms the structure of ribosomes.
checkpoint: A critical control point in the cell cycle where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle.
what is the valence of carbon (atomic #6)?: -4
endocytosis: The cellular uptake of macromolecules and particulate substances by localized regions of the plasma membrane that surround the substance and pinch off to form an intracellular vesicle.
fate maps: general territorial diagrams of embryonic development
fission: separation of parent into 2 or more individuals of about same size (ex - bacteria, yeast)
metaphase: The third stage of mitosis, in which the spindle is complete and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the metaphase plate.
Golgi apparatus: An organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of flat membranous sacs that modify, store, and route products of the endoplasmic reticulum.
transcription unit: A region of a DNA molecule that is transcribed into an RNA molecule.
Hfr cell: cell w/ built-in F factor; F factor of this type of cell brings some chromosomal DNA along when transferred to F- cell
what do plants use for energy storage?: starch
photosystem II: One of two light-capturing units in a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane; it has two molecules of P680 chlorophyll a at its reaction center.
life cycle: The generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism.
enantiomers: isomers that are mirror images of each other; biological enzymes act on only 1 enantiomer
oogenesis: development of mature oocytes (eggs)
polysaccharide: polymer of more than 2 monosaccharides; important in metabolism; sometimes used for cell I.D.; store energy; structure/function determined by monomers & locations of bonds between monomers
cell plate: A double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis.
slow block to polyspermy: The formation of the fertilization envelope and other changes in the egg's surface that prevent fusion of the egg with more than one sperm.
frameshift mutation: A mutation occurring when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, resulting in the improper grouping of the following nucleotides into codons.
pleiotropy: The ability of a single gene to have multiple effects.
heterochromatin: Nontranscribed eukaryotic chromatin that is so highly compacted that it is visible with a light microscope during interphase.
epigenetic inheritance: Inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence.
primary electron acceptor: A specialized molecule sharing the reaction center with the pair of reaction-center chlorophyll a molecules; it accepts an electron from one of these two chlorophylls.
morphogenesis: The development of body shape and organization.
microfilament: A solid rod of actin protein in the cytoplasm of almost all eukaryotic cells, making up part of the cytoskeleton and acting alone or with myosin to cause cell contraction.
bundle-sheath cell: A type of photosynthetic cell arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of a leaf.
complete dominance: The situation in which the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are indistinguishable.
pseudogene: A DNA segment very similar to a real gene but which does not yield a functional product; a gene that has become inactivated in a particular species because of mutation.
glycolysis: The splitting of glucose into pyruvate. Glycolysis is the one metabolic pathway that occurs in all living cells, serving as the starting point for fermentation or aerobic respiration.
single-strand binding protein: During DNA replication, molecules that line up along the unpaired DNA strands, holding them apart while the DNA strands serve as templates for the synthesis of complementary strands of DNA.
locus: A specific place along the length of a chromosome where a given gene is located.
crossing over: The reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during prophase I of meiosis.
carbon fixation: The incorporation of carbon from CO2 into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism (a plant, another photosynthetic organism, or a chemoautotrophic bacterium).
recombinant chromosome: A chromosome created when crossing over combines the DNA from two parents into a single chromosome.
male internal genitalia: seminal vesicles, Cowper's glands, prostate gland, epididymis & vas deferens
recessive allele: An allele whose phenotypic effect is not observed in a heterozygote.
internal fertilization: sperm are deposited in/near female reproductive tract & fertilization occurs w/in tract; requires behavioral interactions & compatible copulatory organs
polar covalent bond: electrons pulled toward more electronegative atom of molecule; water soluble (hydrophilic)
fertilization: union of egg & sperm
asexual reproduction: creation of offspring w/o gamete fusion
glial cells: help nourish, insulate & replenish neurons (support cells)
cell cycle control system: A cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle.
mitotic spindle: An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis.
base-pair substitution: A type of point mutation; the replacement of one nucleotide and its partner in the complementary DNA strand by another pair of nucleotides.
nucleus: (1) An atom's central core, containing protons and neutrons. (2) The chromosome-containing organelle of a eukaryotic cell. (3) A cluster of neurons
topoisomerase: A protein that functions in DNA replication, helping to relieve strain in the double helix ahead of the replication fork.
lytic cycle: A type of viral (phage) replication cycle resulting in the release of new phages by lysis (and death) of the host cell.
cytoplasm: The entire contents of the cell, exclusive of the nucleus, and bounded by the plasma membrane.
Embryo Polarity: eggs & zygotes of many animals, except mammals, have a definite polarity (distribution of the yolk)
gene: A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).
5' cap: The 5' end of a pre-mRNA molecule modified by the addition of a cap of guanine nucleotide.
G2 phase: The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.
ligand: A molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.
microtubule: A hollow rod of tubulin protein in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells and in cilia, flagella, and the cytoskeleton.
recombinant: An offspring whose phenotype differs from that of the parents; also called recombinant type.
What is the chemical behavior of an atom determined by?: the distribution of electrons in the levels/shells (by the valence) (elements with full outer shells are chemically inert)
law of independent assortment: Mendel's second law, stating that each pair of alleles segregates independently during gamete formation; applies when genes for two characters are located on different pairs of homologous chromosomes.
cofactor: Any non-protein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme. Cofactors can be permanently bound to the active site or may bind loosely with the substrate during catalysis.
activator: A protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a specific gene.
stratified epithelium: An epithelium consisting of more than one layer of cells in which some but not all cells touch the basal lamina.
budding: new individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones (ex - hydra)
pedigree: A diagram of a family tree showing the occurrence of heritable characters in parents and offspring over multiple generations.
repressor: A protein that suppresses the transcription of a gene.
why can many herbivores, from cows to termites, digest cellulose (∝ glucose)?: have symbiotic relationships with microbes that use enzymes to digest cellulose
menstruation: The shedding of portions of the endometrium, a reoccurring event.
DNA microarrays: A method to detect and measure the expression of thousands of genes at one time. Tiny amounts of a large number of single-stranded DNA fragments representing different genes are fixed to a glass slide. These fragments, ideally representing all the genes of an organism, are tested for hybridization with various samples of cDNA molecules.
hydrogenation: process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen
fertilization: The union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote.
ectopic pregnancy: Pregnancy occurring in an abnormal location.
gastrulation: Cells are rearranged into 3 distinct layers
light-harvesting complex: Complex of proteins associated with pigment molecules (including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) that captures light energy and transfers it to reaction-outer pigments in a photosystem.
aerobic: Containing oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that requires oxygen.
calorie (cal): amount of heat required to raise temp of 1g of water by 1C
gated channel: A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.
hormonal proteins: coordination of an organism's activities (ex: insulin)
cell differentiation: The structural and functional divergence of cells as they become specialized during a multicellular organism's development; dependent on the control of gene expression.
endocrine system: transmits chemical signals called hormones to receptive cells throughout the body via blood
hypotonic: In comparing two solutions, referring to the one with a lower solute concentration.
stoma: A microscopic pore surrounded by guard cells in the epidermis of leaves and stems that allows gas exchange between the environment and the interior of the plant.
restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP): Differences in DNA sequence on homologous chromosomes that can result in different patterns of restriction fragment lengths (DNA segments resulting from treatment with restriction enzymes); useful as genetic markers for making linkage maps.
chloroplast: An organelle found only in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water.
solution: a solute dissolved in a solvent (ex: salt water = salt (solute) in water (solvent)
meiosis I: The first division of a two-stage process of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells with half the chromosome number of the original cell.
differential gene expression: The expression of different sets of genes by cells with the same genome.
alternation of generations: A life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte; characteristic of plants.
incomplete dominance: The situation in which the phenotype of heterozygotes is intermediate between the phenotypes of individuals homozygous for either allele.
acrosomal reaction: The discharge of a sperm's acrosome when the sperm approaches an egg.
membrane potential: The charge difference between a cell's cytoplasm and the extracellular fluid, due to the differential distribution of ions. Membrane potential affects the activity of excitable cells and the transmembrane movement of all charged substances.
hot spots: electrons distributed asymmetrically in molecules or atoms
photophosphorylation: The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton-motive force generated by the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light reactions of photosynthesis.
primase: An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer.
A site: One of a ribosome's three binding sites for tRNA during translation. This site holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the polypeptide chain.
cleavage: The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane; specifically, the succession of rapid cell divisions without growth during early embryonic development that converts the zygote into a ball of cells.
spliceosome: A complex assembly that interacts with the ends of an RNA intron in splicing RNA, releasing the intron and joining the two adjacent exons.
endometrium: inner layer of (stratified, squamous, nonkeratinized) epithelium shed during menstruation
plasmodesma: (plural, plasmodesmata) An open channel in the cell wall of plant through which strands of cytosol connect from an adjacent cell
dominant allele: An allele that is fully expressed in the phenotype of a heterozygote.
cytokinesis: The division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis.
pluripotent: able to differentiate into all cell types except extraembryonic tissues
Eukaryotic Cloning and Expression Systems: use of cultured eukaryotic cells as host cells & yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) as vectors helps avoid gene expression problems YACs behave normally in mitosis & can carry more DNA than a plasmid eukaryotic hosts can provide the post-translational modifications that many proteins require
micelles: polar heads interact with water; nonpolar tails 'hide' inside (looks like little balls with the tails inside)
enhancer: A DNA segment containing multiple control elements that may be located far away from the gene it regulates.
plasmolysis: A phenomenon in walled cells in which the cytoplasm shrivels and the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall when the cell loses water to a hypertonic environment.
mesophyll cell: A loosely arranged photosynthetic cell located between the bundle sheath and the leaf surface.
what is the valence of oxygen (atomic #8)?: -2
primary transcript: An initial RNA transcript; also called pre-mRNA when transcribed from a protein-coding gene.
temperature: measures intensity of heat due to average kinetic energy of molecules
desmosome: A type of intercellular junction in animal cells that functions as an anchor.
cartilage: A type of flexible connective tissue with an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in chondroitin.
Vulva: external genitalia, includes Labia majora, Labia minora and Clitoris
blood: A type of connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which blood cells are suspended.
primary cell wall: A relatively thin and flexible layer first secreted by a young plant cell.
blastula: The hollow ball of cells marking the end stage of cleavage during early embryonic development.
S phase: The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.
hormones: are relatively slow acting, but can have long-lasting effects
cilium: A short cellular appendage specialized for locomotion, formed from a core of nine outer doublet microtubules and two inner single microtubules ensheathed in an extension of plasma membrane.
energy level (electron shell): an electron's state of potential energy
gene cloning: using bacteria to make multiple copies of a gene
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus): The infectious agent that causes AIDS. It is a retrovirus.
micro-RNA (miRNA): A small, single-stranded RNA molecule that binds to a complementary sequence in mRNA molecules and directs associated proteins to degrade or prevent translation of the target mRNA.
replication fork: A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing.
surface tension: measure of how difficult to stretch/break surface of liquid
chorionic villus sampling (CVS): A technique of prenatal diagnosis in which a small sample of the fetal portion of the placenta is removed and analyzed to detect certain genetic and congenital defects in the fetus.
hyrophillic: water-loving (ionic, polar molecules)
nuclear transplantation: nucleus of unfertilized egg cell or zygote replaced w/ nucleus of a differentiated cell
monomers: repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer
plasmid: A small ring of DNA that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome; also found in some eukaryotes, such as yeast.
prion: An infectious form of protein that may increase in number by converting related proteins to more prions.
eukaryotic cells: have membrane-bound organelles; have membrane-bound nucleus (with DNA inside); larger than prokaryotic; some have a tough outer wall (plants); single and multicellular (animals, plants, fungi, protists); plasma membrane present
peroxisome: A microbody containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide.
karyotype: A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.
adipose cells: fat cells: long hydrocarbon tails attached to a nonhydrocarbon component
interstitial fluid: fills space between cells, allows for movement of material into & out of cells
transport vesicle: A tiny membranous sac in a cell's cytoplasm carrying molecules produced by the cell.
codon: A three-nucleotide sequence of DNA or mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or termination signal; the basic unit of the genetic code.
nucleoid: A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.
control element: A segment of noncoding DNA that helps regulate transcription of a gene by binding proteins called transcription factors.
fats related to diet: saturated fats contribute to cardiovascular disease through plaque deposits; trans fats (hydrogenated unsaturated fats) may be even more unheathly
eukaryotic cell: A type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles, present in protists, plants, fungi, and animals; also called eukaryote.
male external genitalia: testes and penis
transformation: (1) The conversion of a normal animal cell to a cancerous cell. (2) A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.
collagen: A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that forms strong fibers, found extensively in connective tissue and bone; the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom.
intermediate filament: A component of the cytoskeleton that includes all filaments intermediate in size between microtubules and microfilaments.
rubisco: Ribulose carboxylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle (the addition of CO2 to RuBP, or ribulose bisphosphate).
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction ): can produce many copies of a specific target segment of DNA
anaphase: The fourth stage of mitosis, in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell.
cloning vector: DNA molecule that can carry foreign DNA into host cell & replicate there
gap junction: A type of intercellular junction in animal cells that allows the passage of material or current between cells.
isotonic: Having the same solute concentration as another solution.
allosteric regulation: The binding of a molecule to a protein that affects the function of the protein at a different site.
fibrous connective tissue: A dense tissue with large numbers of collagenous fibers organized into parallel bundles. This is the dominant tissue in tendons and ligaments.
amniote: Member of a clade of tetrapods that have an amniotic egg containing specialized membranes that protect the embryo, including mammals and birds and other reptiles.
anatomy: study of biological form of an organism
key to an atom's chemical characteristics: electron configuration, which determines the kinds and number of bonds an atom will form
electron microscope (EM): A microscope that focuses an electron beam through a specimen, resulting in resolving power a thousandfold greater than that of a light microscope. A transmission electron microscope (TEM) is used to study the internal structure of thin sections of cells. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used to study the fine details of cell surfaces.
receptor proteins: response of cell to chemical stimuli (ex: receptors in nerve cells)
spermatogenesis: The continuous and prolific production of mature sperm cells in the testis.
electronegativity: an atom's attraction for the electron in a bond; the more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it pulls shared electrons toward itself
haploid cell: A cell containing only one set of chromosomes (n).
Epithelial Tissue: covers outside of body & lines organs & cavities w/in body
tonoplast: A membrane that encloses the central vacuole in a plant cell, separating the cytosol from the vacuolar contents, called cell sap; also known as the vacuolar membrane.
cystic fibrosis: A human genetic disorder caused by a recessive allele for a chloride channel protein; characterized by an excessive secretion of mucus and consequent vulnerability to infection; fatal if untreated.
actin: A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells.
G0 phase: A nondividing state in which a cell has left the cell cycle.
phenotype: The physical and physiological traits of an organism, that are determined by its genetic makeup.
gamete: A haploid cell, such as an egg or sperm. These cells unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.
inversion: An aberration in chromosome structure resulting from reattachment in a reverse orientation of a chromosomal fragment to the chromosome from which the fragment originated.
facilitated diffusion: The spontaneous passage of molecules and ions, bound to specific carrier proteins, across a biological membrane down their concentration gradients
secondary cell wall: A strong and durable matrix often deposited in several laminated layers for plant cell protection and support.
mRNA (messenger RNA): A type of RNA, synthesized from DNA, that attaches to ribosomes in the cytoplasm and specifies the primary structure of a protein.
amphipathic molecule: A molecule that has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region.
retrovirus: An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses.
heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a given gene.
acid: solution with H+ higher than water (ex: vinegar). release H+
character: An observable heritable feature.
animal pole: The portion of the egg where the least yolk is concentrated; opposite of vegetal pole.
metabolic pathway: A series of chemical reactions that either builds a complex molecule (anabolic pathway) or breaks down a complex molecule into simpler compounds (catabolic pathway).
hexoses: sugars made of a 6-carbon chain
disaccharide examples: sucrose (glucose + fructose); lactose (glucose + galactose); maltose (glucose + glucose)
neuron: A nerve cell; the fundamental unit of the nervous system, having structure and properties that allow it to conduct signals by taking advantage of the electrical charge across its cell membrane.
single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs): single base-pair sites that vary in a population
pseudopodium: (plural, pseudopodia) A cellular extension of amoeboid cells used in moving and feeding
organogenesis: three layers interact & move to give rise to organs
condensation synthesis: a reaction in which 2 monomers are combined covalently through the removal of a small molecule (when the small molecule is water, it is called dehydration reaction)
monosomic: Referring to a cell that has only one copy of a particular chromosome, instead of the normal two.
synapsis: The pairing of replicated homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.
zygote: The diploid product of the union of haploid gametes in conception; a fertilized egg.
evaporative cooling: hottest molecule in liquid is most likely to leave, so temp decreases
what links all forms of life (similarities)?: universal genetic code, similarity in cell structure, glycolysis is a widespread metabolic pathway, regulatory mechanisms, evolution
Ras gene: A gene that codes for a protein of the same name, a G protein that relays a growth signal from a growth factor receptor on the plasma membrane to a cascade of protein kinases that ultimately results in the stimulation of the cell cycle. Many oncogenes of the same name have a point mutation that leads to a hyperactive version of this type of protein that can lead to excessive cell division.
genome: The complete complement of an organism's genes; an organism's genetic material.
water's specific heat: 1 cal/g/degree C; (very high, water is resistant to temp change)
specific heat: amount of heat that ust be absorbed or lost for 1g of substance to change temp by 1 degree C
fungi: part of (3 of 4) the eukaryotic kingdom, decomposers, absorb nutrients after breaking them down
light reactions: The steps in photosynthesis that occur on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast and that convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH, evolving oxygen in the process.
Muscle Tissue: Tissue consisting of long muscle cells that are capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve impulses.
Tay-Sachs disease: A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele for a dysfunctional enzyme, leading to accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth.
bone: A type of connective tissue, consisting of living cells held in a rigid matrix of collagen fibers embedded in calcium salts.
why does cellulose in human food passes through the digestive tract as insoluble fiber?: enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing ∝ linkages can't hydrolyze ß linkages in cellulose
homologous chromosomes: Chromosome pairs of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern that possess genes for the same characters at corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's father, the other from the mother.
chromosome theory of inheritance: A basic principle in biology stating that genes are located on chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis accounts for inheritance patterns.
1 molar solution: 1 mole of molecules dissolved in solvent to make 1L total solution
PEP carboxylase: An enzyme that adds carbon dioxide to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form oxaloacetate.
hierarchy of organization (macro): (in order) population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere
water's solvent properties: polar molecule; small; can deal with cations and anions; can also dissolve other polar molecules
endometrium: The inner lining of the uterus, which is richly supplied with blood vessels.
granum: (plural, grana) A stacked portion of the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. Grana function in the light reactions of photosynthesis
seminiferous tubules: A highly coiled tube in the testis in which sperm are produced
triplet code: A set of three-nucleotide-long words that specify the amino acids for polypeptide chains.
totipotent: Describing a cell that can give rise to all parts of the embryo and adult, as well as extraembryonic membranes in species that have them.
energy: capacity to cause change
energy: The capacity to do work (to move matter against an opposing force).
zone of polarizing activity (ZPA): mesodermal tissue under ectoderm where posterior side of limb bud is attached to body
stroma: The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.
electron: negatively charged particle (-1) with a mass 1/1837 of that of a proton
cytoplasmic determinants: zygote's genome & molecules in egg
testcross: Breeding of an organism of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype. The ratio of phenotypes in the offspring determines the unknown genotype.
capsid: The protein shell that encloses a viral genome. It may be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complex in shape.
photorespiration: A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, generates no ATP, and decreases photosynthetic output; generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of carbon dioxide.
mismatch repair: The cellular process that uses special enzymes to fix incorrectly paired nucleotides.
endomembrane system: The collection of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.
osmosis: The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
lactic acid fermentation: The conversion of pyruvate to lactate with no release of carbon dioxide.
cotransport: The coupling of the downhilldiffusion of one substance to the uphill transport of another against its own concentration gradient.
restriction fragment: DNA segment resulting from cutting of DNA by a restriction enzyme.
proteasome: A giant protein complex that recognizes and destroys proteins tagged for elimination by the small protein ubiquitin.
linked genes: Genes located close enough together on a chromosome to be usually inherited together.
sodium-potassium pump: A special transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell against their concentration gradients.
hemophilia: A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by excessive bleeding following injury
enzymatic proteins: selective acceleration of chemical reactions (ex: digestive enzymes)
centriole: A structure in an animal cell composed of cylinders of microtubule triplets arranged in a 9 + 0 pattern. An animal cell usually has a pair of centrioles involved in cell division.
cyclin: A regulatory protein whose concentration fluctuates cyclically.
bacteria: single-celled organisms; diverse and widespread; less extreme environments
photosystem: Light-capturing unit located in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast, consisting of a reaction center surrounded by numerous light-harvesting complexes. There are two types of photosystems, I and II; they absorb light best at different wavelengths.
chlorophyll b: A type of yellow-green accessory photosynthetic pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a.
induced fit: The change in shape of the active site of an enzyme so that it binds more snugly to the substrate, induced by entry of the substrate.
heat: measure of total amount of kinetic energy due to molecular motion
transcription factor: A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of specific genes.
isotope: atoms with the same number of protons and electrons, but different numbers of neutrons
crista: (plural, cristae) An infolding of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electron transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.
exocytosis: The cellular secretion of macromolecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.
ATP synthase: A cluster of several membrane proteins found in the mitochondrial crista (and bacterial plasma membrane) that function in chemiosmosis with adjacent electron transport chains, using the energy of a hydrogen ion concentration gradient to make ATP. ATP synthases provide a port through which hydrogen ions diffuse into the matrix of a mitrochondrion.
transposons: transposons have DNA required for transposition & extra genes that "go along for the ride" such as genes for antibiotic resistance

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