PL100
Terms
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- individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transit information
- neurons
- cell body; it contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells
- soma
- the parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information
- dendrites
- a long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or to glands
- axon
- insulating material, derived from glial cells, that encases some axons
- myelin sheath
- small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters
- terminal buttons
- a junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another
- synapse
- the stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive
- resting potential
- a very brief shift in a neuron's electrical charge that travels along an axon
- action potential
- minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot accur
- absolute refractory
- a microscopic gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron
- synaptic cleft
- chemicals that transmit information frrom one neuron to another
- neurotransmitters
- a voltage change at a receptor site on a postsypnaptic cell membrane
- postsynaptic potential
- a positive voltage shift that increases the likelyhood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials.
- excitatory PSP
- a negative voltage shift that decreases the likehood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potential
- inhibitory PSP
- process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane
- reuptake
- the stimulation of sense organs
- sensation
- the selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory output
- perception
- the study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience
- psychophysics
- a dividing point between energy levels that do and do not have a detectable effect
- threshold
- the minimum amount of stimulation that an organism can detect percent of the time
- absolute threshold
- all the irrelevant stimuli in the environment and the neural activity they elicit
- noise
- a gradual decline in sensitivity to prolonged stimulation
- sensory adatation
- transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina
- lens
- close objects are seen clearly but distant objects appear blurry
- nearsightedness
- distant objects are seen clearly but close objects appear blurry
- farsightedness
- the opening in the center of the iris that helps regulate the amount of light passing into the rear chamber of the eye
- pupil
- the neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye; it absorbs light, reprocesses images, and sneds visual information to the brain
- retina
- a hole in the retina where the optic nerve fibers exit the eye
- optic disk
- secialized visual receptors that play a key role in daylight vision and color vision
- cones
- a tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones; visual acuity is greatest at this spot
- fovea
- specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision
- rods
- the point at which the optic nerves from the inside half of each eye cross over and then project to the opposite half of the brain
- optic chiasm
- involves simultaneous extracting different kinds of information from the same input
- parallel processing
- a fluid-filled, coiled tunnel that contains the receptors for hearing
- cochlea
- it runs the length of the spiraled cochlea, hold the auditory receptors
- basilar membrane
- it is made up of all those nerves that lie outside the brain and the spinal cord
- peripheral nervous system
- bundles of neuron fibers that are routed together in the peripheral nervous system
- nerves
- made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors
- somatic nervous sytem
- axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery o fthe body
- afferent nerve fibers
- axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body
- efferent nerve fibers
- made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles and glands
- autonomic nervous system
- the branch of the autonomic nervous sytem that mobilizaes the body's resources for emergencies
- sympathetic division
- the branch of the autonomic nervous system that generally conserves bodily resources
- parasympathetic division
- system that consists of the brain and the spinal cord
- central nervous sytem
- nourished the brain and provides a cushion for it
- cerebrospinal fluid
- a semipermeable membrane-like mechanism that stops some chemicals from passing between the bloodstream and the brain
- blood-brain barrier
- includes the cerebellum and the two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem: the medulla and the pons
- hindbrain
- segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain
- midbrain
- the largest and most complex region of the brainm encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalumus, limbic system, and cerebrum
- forebrain
- a structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex
- thalamus
- a structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs
- hypothalumus
- a loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortial areas
- limbic system
- the largest and most complex area of thehuman brain
- cerebrum
- convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum
- cerebral cortex
- right and left halves of the cerebrum
- cerebral hemispheres
- structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
- corpus callosum
- consists of glands that secrete chemicals into the bloostream that help control bodily functioning
- endocrine system
- releases a great variety of hormones that fan out around the body, stimulating actions in the other endocrine glands
- pituitary gland
- a drawing that is compatible with two interpretations that can shift back and forth
- reversible figure
- a readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way
- perceptual set
- process of detecting specific elements in visual input and assembling them into a more complex form
- feature analysis
- involves interpretation of visual cues that indicate how near or far away objects are
- depth perception
- clues about distance based on differing views of the two eyes
- binocular depth
- refers to the fact that objects within 25 ft. project images to slightly different locations on the right and left retine, so the right and left eyes see slightly different views of the object
- retinal disparity
- clues about distance based on the image in either eye alnoe
- monocular depth
- clues about distance based in either eye alone
- monocular depth
- involves images of objects at different distances moving across the retina at different rates
- motion parallax
- clues about distance that can be given in a flat picture
- pictorial depth cues
- involves an apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus and its physical reality
- optical illusion
- objects that can be represented in two dimensional pictures but cannot exist in three-dimentional space
- impossible figures
- device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surfca eof the scalp
- EEG
- periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning
- biological rhythms
- consists of sleep stages 3 and 4 during which high-amplitude, low-frequency data waves become prominent in EEG recordings
- slowwave sleep
- relatively deep stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, high-frequency, low-amplitude brain waves, and vivid dreaming
- REM sleep
- sleep stages 1-4 which are marked by an absence of rapid eye movements, relatively little dreaming, and varied EEG activity
- Non-REM
- sensory perceptions that occur in the absence of real, external stimuli
- hallucinations
- failures to mention important information or to carry out important tasks, and often occur when a person omits an important step in a sequence of behaviors
- memory lapses
- sudden and unpredictable changes from one mood to another
- mood swings
- difficulty paying attention to details, easily distracted, and prone to making careless mistakes
- attention deficit
- chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning
- psychoactive drugs
- drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain
- narcotic or opiates
- sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system activation and behavioral activity
- sedatives
- drugs that tend to increase central nervous system activation and behavioral activity
- stimulants
- a diverse group of drugs that have powerful effects on mental and emotional functioning, marked most prominently by distortions in sensory and perceptual experience
- hallucinogens
- hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC are derived.
- cannabis
- exists when a person must continue to take a drug to avpid withdrawal illness
- physical dependence
- exists when a person must continue to take a drug to satisfy intense mental and emotional craving for the drug
- psychological dependence
- holds that physical illness is caused by a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors
- biopshychosocial model
- psychology concerned with how pshychosocial factors relate to the promotion and maintenance of health and with the causation, prevention, and treatment of illness.
- health psychology
- any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well-being and that thereby tax one's coping abilities
- stress
- occurs in any situation when the persuit if some goal is thwarted
- frustration
- occurs when two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses compete for expression
- conflict
- conflict in which a choice must be made betweem two attracteive goals
- approach-approach conflict
- a choice must be made between two attractive goals
- avoidance-avoidance
- a choice must be made about whether to pursue a single goal that has both attractive and unattractive aspects
- approach-avoidance
- involves expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way
- pressure
- hypotheiss predicting that task performance should improve with increased emotional arousal
- inverted-U hypothesis
- a physiological reaction to threat in which the autonomic nervous system mobilizes the organism for attacking or fleeing an enemy
- fight-or-flight
- refers to active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress
- coping
- any behavior that is intended to hurt someone, either physically or verbally
- aggression
- consist of spending an inordiante amount of time on the internet and inability to control online use
- internet addcition
- largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt
- defense mechanisms
- relatively healthful efforst that people make to deal with stressful events
- constructive coping
- involves physical, mental, and emotional exhaustion that is attributable to long-term involvement in emotionally demanding situations
- burnout
- involves enduring psychological disturbance attributed to the experience of a major catastrophic event
- posttraumatic stress
- refers to various types of aid and succor provided by members of one's social network
- social support
- a model of the body's stress response, consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
- general adaptation syndrome
- physical ailments with a genuine organic basis that are caused in part by psychological factors, especially emotional distress
- psychosomatic diseases
- someone who is very competitive, impatient and concerned aboutthe availability of time, angry and hostile
- Type A personality
- someone who is relatively relaxed, easygoing, and amicable
- Type B personality
- the body's defensive reaction to invasion by bacteria, viral agents, or other foreign substances
- immune response