BIOLOGY EXAM TWO REVIEW
Terms
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- macroevolution
- the major changes recorded in the history of life over vast tracts of time
- phylogeny
- the evolutionary history of a species or group of species
- systematics
- a discipline of biology that focuses on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships
- binomial
- two-part (used in reference to naming systems in taxonomy)
- genus
- the first part of a binomial to which a species belongs
- taxon
- a taxonomic unit at any level
- phylogenetic trees
- branching diagrams that reflect the hierarchical classification of groups nested within more inclusive groups
- Linnaeus
- one of the primary forerunners of taxonomy
- the Linnaean system--does the king prefer cheddar, orange, feta, or Gouda?
- domain, kingdom, class, order, phlyum, genus, species
- how classification levels are defined
- by various morphological characteristics
- cladistics
- an approach to systematics in which common descent is the primary criterion used to classify organisms by placing them into groups called clades
- clade
- a group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants
- monophyletic
- "single tribe"--used to describe inclusive groups of ancestors and descendants
- shared derived characteristics
- new heritable traits developed in an organism and passed onto its descendants
- shared ancestral characteristics
- the original traits present in ancestral groups
- ingroup
- in cladistics, the group of taxa being analyzed
- outgroup
- in cladistics, the species or group of species that is known to have diverged before the lineage of the studied ingroup
- parsimony
- the quest for the simplest explanation for observed phenomena
- how systematists use parsimony
- to construct phylogenetic trees that represent the smallest number of evolutionary changes
- molecular systematics
- a systematic method that compares nucleic acids or other molecules to infer relatedness
- molecular clock
- an evolutionary timing method based on the observation that at least some regions of genomes evolve at constant rates
- three-domain system
- a system that recognizes three basic groups: two domains of prokaryotes, Bacteria and Archaea, and one domain of eukaryotes, Eukarya
- True or false: bacteria are more closely related to eukaryotes than are archaea.
- false
- horizontal gene transfer
- a process in which genes are transferred from one genome to another through mechanisms such as plasmid exchange, viral infection, and even fusion of different organisms
- pathogens
- disease-causing agents
- True or false: eukaryotes have a membrane-enclosed nucleus and numerous other membrane-enclosed organelles, whereas prokaryotic cells lack these structural features.
- true
- peptidoglycan
- the material of which bacterial cell walls are composed; a polymer of sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides
- cocci
- spherical prokaryotic cells
- bacilli
- rod-shaped prokaryotes
- the third prokaryotic cell type that is neither rod-shaped or spherical
- spiral-shaped prokaryotic cells
- the purpose of a prokaryotic cell's cell wall
- to maintain cell shape, provide physical protection, and prevent bursting in a hypotonic environment
- gram stain
- a microbiology technique used to identify the cell wall composition of bacteria; results categorize bacteria as gram-positive or gram-negative
- pili
- hairlike appendages in some prokaryotes that help them stick to their substrate or to one another
- flagella
- what bacteria and archaea use to move around
- endospore
- a thick-coated, protective cell produced within a bacterial cell; endosphere becomes dormant and is able to survive harsh environmental conditions
- the difference between phototrophs and chemotrophs
- phototrophs: prokaryotic organisms that capture energy from sunlight; chemotrophs: prokaryotic organisms that harness energy stored in organic molecules or inorganic chemicals
- photoautotroph
- an organism that obtains energy from sunlight and carbon from carbon dioxide by photosynthesis
- photoheterotroph
- an organism that obtains energy from sunlight and carbon from organic sources
- chemoautotroph
- an organism that obtains both energy and carbon from inorganic chemicals, making its own organic compounds from carbon dioxide without using light energy
- chemoheterotrophs
- a group of organisms which acquire both energy and carbon from organic molecules; by far the largest and most diverse group of prokaryotes
- biofilms
- surface-coating colonies of prokaryotes
- extreme halophile
- a microorganism that lives in a highly saline environment, such as the Great Salt Lake or the Dead Sea
- extreme thermophile
- a microoganism that thrives in a hot environment
- methanogens
- a type of Archaea that produces methane as a metabolic waste product
- proteobacteria
- a diverse clade of gram-negative bacteria that includes five subgroups known as alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon
- chlamydias
- a second bacterial group that lives inside eukaryotic host cells
- spirochetes
- a group of helical bacteria that spiral through their environment by means of rotating, internal filaments
- gram-positive bacteria
- a diverse group of bacteria with a cell wall that is structurally less complex and contains more peptidoglycan than that of gram-negative bacteria; gram-positive bacteria are usually less toxic than gram-negative bacteria
- cyanobacteria
- the only prokaryotes with plant-like, oxygen-generating photosynthesis
- exotoxins
- proteins secreted by bacterial cells; include some of the most powerful poisons known
- endotoxins
- components of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria that are released when the cell dies or is digested by a defensive cell
- bioremediation
- the use of organisms to remove pollutants from soil, air, or water
- protists
- a diverse collection of mostly unicellular eukaryotes
- algae
- autotrophic, photosynthetic protists
- protozoans
- heterotrophic protists that eat bacteria and other protists
- symbiosis
- a close association between organisms of two or more species
- primary endosymbiosis
- a hypothesis that states eukaryotic cells evolved when prokaryotes began to reside within other, larger prokaryotes
- secondary endosymbiosis
- the hypothesis that states protist diversity developed from a symbiotic association that arose when an autotrophic eukaryotic protist was engulfed by a heterotrophic eukaryotic protist
- diplomonads
- heterotrophic protists that represent the most ancient surviving line of eukaryotes; have modified mitochondria with no DNA or electron transport chains
- parasites
- organisms that derive their nutrition from living hosts, which are harmed by the interaction
- parabasalids
- heterotrophic protists that have modified mitochondria that generate some energy anaerobically
- euglenozoans
- a diverse clade of protists whose common feature is the presence of a crystalline rod of unknown function inside their flagella
- alveolates
- a clade of protists consisting of dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates--all of which have sacs beneath their plasma membranes
- dinoflagellates
- common components of marine and freshwater phytoplankton; are occasionally heterotrophic; can cause warm coastal waters to turn pinkish orange
- ciliates
- a large, varied group of alveolates that use cilia to move and feed; primarily free-living; have two types of nuclei: a single, large macronucleus and multiple tiny micromuclei that function in sexual reproduction
- apicomplexans
- alveolates that are parasites of animals and can cause serious human diseases
- stramenopiles
- protists named for their "hairy" flagellum, which has numerous hairlike projections; includes both heterotrophs and autotrophs
- water molds
- fungus-like stramenopiles that typically decompose dead plants and animals in freshwater habitats; long classified as fungi, but have been proven to be more similar to protists than fungi
- diatoms
- unicellular stramenopiles with a unique, glassy cell wall containing silica; belong to the informal category called algae, which include all autotrophic protists
- brown algae
- large, complex stramenopiles; autotrophic
- kelp
- underwater beds of brown algae
- amoeba
- a protist that moves and feeds by means of pseudopodia
- pseudopodium
- a temporary extension of am amoeboid cell that functions in moving cells and engulfing food
- amoebozoans
- a clade of protists that have lobe-shaped pseudopodia
- plasmodial slime molds
- amoebozoans that are common in areas with moist, decaying organic matter; brightly pigmented
- plasmodium
- a single, multinucleate mass of cytoplasm undivided by plasma membanes
- cellular slime molds
- amoebozoans that are common on decaying organic matter; mostly exist as solitary amoeboid cells, though they can swarm together and form an aggregate when food is scarce
- formaminiferans
- protists that move and feed with pseudopodia; found in the ocean and fresh water; have porous shells called tests that are composed of organic material hardened by calcium carbonate; mostly fossilized
- radiolarians
- move and feed with pseudopodia; have an internal skeleton made of silica; are primarily marine
- red algae
- a close relative of land plants; typically soft-bodied, but some have cell walls encrusted with hard, chalky deposits; reside in warm coastal waters in the tropics
- green algae
- have grass-green chloroplasts; split into two groups, chlorophytes and charophytes; some marine green algae are large and complex enough to qualify as seaweeds
- alteration of generations
- a pattern of life cycle of many types of green algae in which a multicellular diploid form alternates with a multicellular haploid farm; occurs in a number of multicellular algae and in all plants
- gametophytes
- multicellular haploid forms
- sporophyte
- a multicellular diploid form
- a theorized model for the evolution of a multicellular organism from a unicellular protist
-
1. A unicellular protist.
2. A colony. - the three major lineages from the ancestral eukaryote that led to multicellular forms
- the stramenopile lineage led to brown algae; an unnamed lineage led to red algae, green algae, and land plants; and another lineage led to fungi and animals
- mycorrhiza
- "fungus root"; a close association of plant roots and fungi that is beneficial to both partners
- charophytes
- a lineage of green algae; the closest living relatives of land plants
- how plants maintain moisture and absorb gases
- with a waxy cuticle covering; carbon dioxide and oxygen can diffuse across the lead surfaces through tiny pores called stomata that open and close
- apical meristems
- growth-producing regions of cell division in plants found near the tips of the stems and the roots; elongate the plant and maximize its exposure to resources
- vascular tissue
- a network of thick-called cells joined into narrow tubes that extend throughout the plant body
- xylem
- a type of vascular tissue tat includes dead cells that form microscopic pipes conveying water and minerals up from the roots
- phloem
- a type of vascular tissue composed of living cells that distributes sugars throughout the plant
- True or false: all mosses have simple vascular tissue.
- False.
- lignin
- a chemical that thickens and reinforces cell walls of some plant tissues
- gametangium
- a reproductive organ that houses and protects the gametes of a plant
- pollen grain
- the structure that will produce the sperm in seed plants; the male gametophyte
- embryophytes
- another name for land plants, recognizing that land plants share the common derived trait of multicellular, dependent embryos
- sporangium
- a structure in fungi and plants in which meiosis occurs and haploid spores develop
- spore
- in plants and algae, a haploid cell that can develop into a multicellular individual without fusing with another cell