AP Biology Cards
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- What is negative feedback?
-
A method of maintaining homeostasis:
- receptor detects change in conditions
- integrator (often the brain) evaluates change
- effector initiated by integrator - Ectotherms
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Obtain body heat from their environment
AKA poikilotherms - Endotherms
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Generate their own body heat
AKA homeotherms - Four types of respiration
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1 - Direct with environment
(Annelids, Platyhelminthes)
2 - Gills: evaginated structures, use
countercurrent exchange
(Annelids, fish)
3 - Tracheae: oxygen enters through
spiracles, diffuses out of moist
ends (Insects)
4 - Lungs: invaginated structures - Open circulatory systems
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- blood pumped into cavity called
hemocoel
- oxygen and nutrient rich fluid called
hemolymph bathes cells
- hemolymph returns to heart through
ostia - Path of blood through heart
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1 - deoxygenated blood enters through
two vena cava into right atrium
2 - blood moves through right AV valve
into right ventricle; blood pumped
to pulmonary artery through
pulmonary semilunar valve
3 - oxygenated blood goes to left
atrium through pulmonary veins
4 - blood passes through left AV valve
into left ventricle; pumped into
aorta through aortic semilunar
valve - Maintenance of the cardiac cycle
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- regulated by autorhythmic cells
- three steps:
1 - SA node contracts both atria, sends
delayed impulse to AV node
2 - AV node sends impules to bundle of
His, which branches into Purkinje
fibers; both ventricles contract
3 - when ventricles contract (systole)
blood goes thru pulmonary arteries
and aorta, AV valves close; when
ventricles relax (diastole),
semilunar valves close - Red blood cells
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- erythrocytes
- transport oxygen
- catalyze conversion of CO2 and H2O
to HCO3 + H+ - White blood cells
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- leukocytes
- five major groups of disease-fighting
cells - Platelets
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- involved in blood clotting
- convert inactive fibrinogen to active
fibrin - Plasma
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- liquid portion of blood
- bulk flow of CO2 takes place in it - Flame cells
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- found in platyhelminthes, like
planaria
- body fluids moved by cilia through
tube system
- wastes excreted through pores - Nephridia
-
- found in pairs in most annelids
- interstitial fluids enter through
ciliated nephrostome
- fluids concentrated as they go
through collecting tubule
- waste goes out through excretory pore - Malpighian tubules
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- arthropods
- attach to midgut, body fluids from
hemolymph collect
- materials retained pass through walls
of midgut as other fluids go on
- excreted through anus - Structure of nephridia
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1 - Bowman's capsule- bulb-shaped body,
branch of renal artery enters,
branches into dense capillary
structure called glomerulus
2 - Convoluted tubule- winding tube;
proximal c.t. at Bowman's capsule,
distal c.t. joins at collecting
duct; in the middle, forms loop of
Henle, surrounded by capillaries
3 - collecting duct - empties into
renal pelvis - Operation of human nephron
-
1 - Filtration - pressure forces water
and small solute (glucose, salts,
nitrogen waste) into Bowman's
capsule, which will go to c.t.
2 - Secretion - as filtrate goes thru
proximal and distal c.t., extra
fluid is selectively secreted
3 - Reabsorption - H20 is reabsorbed,
salts join interstitial fluids,
which are concentrated as they exit - Hormones involved in urine salt regulation
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1 - Antidiruetic hormone (ADH)-
increases reabsorption of water
and concen. of salt in urine by
increasing permeability of duct to
water
2 - Aldosterone- increases reabsorption
of water and salt; increases
permeability of distal c.t. and
collecting duct to salt - Salivary amylase
- secreted in mouth by salivary glands; begins breakdown of starch into maltose
- Peristalsis
- Muscular contractions that move food through esophagus
- Purposes of the stomach
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1 - storage
2 - mixing (into chyme)
3 - physical breakdown (protein
denaturing, muscle action)
4 - chemical breakdown (proteins broken
by pepsin)
5 - controlled release (chyme movement
into sm. intestine controlled by
pyloric sphincter - Proteolytic enzymes
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AKA proteases
Digest proteins
- aminopeptidase (sm. intestine)
- trypsin (pancreas)
- chymotrypsin (pancreas) - Phosphatases
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enzymes from the small intestine
digest nucleotides - Enzymes for starch digestion
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- maltase (sm. intestine)
- lactast (sm. intestine)
- pancreatic amylase (pancreas)
- salivary amylase (mouth) - Gastrin
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- hormone used in digestion
- produced by stomach lining cells
when food reaches stomach or body
senses food availability; stimulates
cells to produce gastric juices - Secretin
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- produced by cells of duodenum
- stimulates pancreas to produce
bicarbonate to neutralize acid chyme - Cholecystokinin
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- produced by small intestine
- stimulates gall bladder to release bile - Auxin
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AKA indoleacetic acid (IAA)
- promotes elongation of cells
- increases H+ in primary cell walls,
loosening cellulose fibers, which
lets turgor pressure make cell expand - Gibberellins
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AKA giberellic acid (more than 60 types)
- interact with auxins to stimulate
shoot growth
- promote fruit development
- promote seed germiniation
- inhibit aging of leaves - Cytokinins
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- stimulate cytokinesis
- influence direction of organogenesis
- stimulate growth of lateral buds
- delay senescence - Ethylene
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- gas that promotes ripening of fruit
- stimulates flower production
- inhibits elongation of roots, stems,
and leaves
- influences leaf abscission - Abscissic acid (ABA)
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- growth inhibitor
- in buds, causes scales to form for
dormancy periods
- dormancy broken by giberellins