Food Science 120 Chapters 31-40
Terms
undefined, object
copy deck
- What is allergy?
- an untoward reaction produced by immune mechanisms that primarily exist for protection
- What is our immune system and what is its function?
-
a system that consists of cells, proteins and molecules in our body that function to prevent, control and combat infection and uncontrolled proliferation of mutant or altered self cells
It must function to "protect" w/o causing harm and must distinguish "self" from "nonself adn harmful" and from "nonself and not harmful" - What is an adverse reaction to food?
- any reaction to a food that is unexpected whether mediated by the immune system or not
- What is a food allergy?
- an abnormal response of the mucosal immune system to antigens deliverd through the oral route
- What is the prevelance of food allergies?
-
About 25% of Americans alter their diet due to suspicion of a food allergy, but only about a 1/3 of these cases actually have them.
AND
Allergies are more prevelant in children than adults - What are three adverse reactions to food?
-
1. Toxic
2. Nontoxic: Food allergy vs. Food intolerance
3. Food Aversion (preference) - What are differnt toxic food intolerances?
-
Metabolic effects: Enzyme deficiency (Lactase)
Pharmacologic Effect: Caffine
Idiosyncratic effect: Enzyme deficiency - What is IgE?
- An antibody produced by the B Cell of the immune system which binds to the Mast cell which releases histomine in the body and facilitates an allergic reaction; is most important reaction b/c can lead to death
- What foods cause IgE mediated allergies?
-
1. Cow's milk
2. Soy or other legumes
3. Peanuts
4. Tree nuts
5. Egg
6. Fish and shellfish
7. Wheat - What foods can be outgrown and which cannot?
-
Outgrown:
Milk, Soy, Egg, and Wheat
Not usually Outgrown:
peanuts and tree nuts - If you are allergic to dustmites, whats a possible allergic reaction that may also be present?
- Shellfish
- What is Pollen Food Syndrome?
-
Also known as Oral allergy syndrom, that have an allergy to pollen and is causative by fruits and veggies
The reaction can be noted by pruritus and angioedema of lips, tongue and palate soon after eating
Patients usually tolerate same food when cooked - Why are children more suceptible to food allergies?
-
Because during formation of the stomach, its lining is more poreous and allows certain proteins in that the body recognizes as foreign
Also acid production is not as great
Finally Protective antibodies such as IgA are not present in large quantities - What are linear/sequential vs. conformation epitopes?
- They are forms of an allergy that can be outgrown by maturity when a ball conformation is split into a more linear form
- How do we diagnose food allergy?
-
Get the story from people
Is is it IgE mediated?
Test:
1. skin testing (not always accurate but a negative test def. indicates no allergy)
2. Blood test (also not perfect)
3. Food Challenge - What can be done about a food allergy?
- Avoid the food causeing this allergy by reading labels and by aware of synanyms for ingredients and be careful when eating out or eating something produced in an area that also produces the confirmed allergen causing food.
- What can cure an allergic reaction?
- Epinephren; EpiPens
- What are some new methods for preventing allergies?
-
1. Anti-IgE
2. Early life modifications (hygiene hypothesis and CPG introduction)
3. Genetically Modified foods
4. Immunotherapy: immunization such as susblingual therapy (under tounge) - Drinking mild causes me and my child to produce more mucus: fact or myth?
- Myth
- I am allergic to sodium benzoate and dyes: fact or myth
- myth
- Exima is an indication of allergy: fact or myth
- myth
- List other ingredients that indicate that milk is in a product
-
Casein
Ghee
hydrolysates
lactalbumin
lactoglobuin
lactose
protein
whey - List soy-based ingredients that can cause an allergic reaction
-
hydrolized veggie protein
misa
shoyu sauce
tempeh
textured veggie protein
tofu -
What does it mean to be in Poverty?
What is poverty line for 2005? -
Its based on the poverty line: in concept: minimum income required to meet basic needs. Below that income line means being in poverty
IN PRACTICE: 3 times cost of low budget diet
19,350 for a family of 4 -
What is a poverty rate; how is this calculated?
What is the poverty rate in WI? what is the most affected county? -
based on reported income, a poverty rate indicates how many people are in poverty
8.7% (about 1/2 million) Menomenee County has largest % in poverty - What is the Self sufficiency standard?
- A different measure of poverty thats based on a variety of costs: Basic diet, Housing, Child care, Transportation, Health Care, Misc. (based on real figures and an alternative to the poverty line)
- Whats wrong with the poverty line?
- Based on out-dated assumptions about spending (1/5-1/6 income on food vs 1/3); same for all locations regardless of COL
- Food Security
- Acess by all people at all tiems to enough food for an active, healthy life
-
Food Insecurity:
How does WI fare? -
Uncertain or limited access to enough food for an active healthy lifestyle (worry and reduce quality of diet)
Below the national average - Hunger:
- The uneasy or painful sensation caused by a lack of food. The recurrent and involuntary lack of access to food. (Food insecurity with hunger = reduced food intake)
- What is a food security measurement?
- a questionairre is taken to help det. the % of people in each food security category
- What are the current trends in food security in the US?
-
Food insecurity and hunger rates increased between 99-04
Relative to other states, WI households have become more food insecure and hungry
Increase in emergency food and nutritional assistance programs
(Could be reaching more people who need help and can affect rate of poeple using food programs) - What are challenges to obtaining food?
-
Transportation
Stores with higher prices
Low variety
Barriars to participation in nutrition assistance programs:
Confusion or lack of awareness
Difficulties applying
Lack of programs -
Do food Pantries help? (3 reasons)
AND
What is typical of a household using this program -
Can play a key role in deterring hunger
Often depend on volunteers and donations from community
Use of pantries has become chronic
Households tend to have 1 person working full-time - What are some of the challenges that remain regarding food insecurities?
-
Increase the availability and use of nutrition assistance programs
Reduce need to rely on emergency food sources (pantries)
Address broader issue (poverty) - Who is the average person "In Line"?
- An average American who is working full time but has children to support or has been laid off recently, and cant make ends meet by current financial status
- What are the politics of food?
-
An abundant food supply
An 'eat more' mentality
The political power of big business (buy our business) - Trends in the US Food industry are:
-
1. Vertical integration: ownership by one corp. of all stages of production, processing, and marketing
Huge multi-national corporations
ex. Pillip Morris, Conagra, Nabisco
Dramatic growth in the food service sectors - Food Sales and Advertising Expenditures, how do they relate?
- Advertising leads to sales
- To sell more food...
-
Taste: Make foods sweet, fat and salty
-Is it good?
-Is it familiar?
-Does it add variety?
-Does it fit me? (cultural)
Cost: add value by keep prices low
-value added through processing (fat, ect)
The 'problem' of overabundance
-Am. payless than 10% of their income on food
-how many extra calories can you afford?
Convenience: Make eating fast
-changing demographics
-Nearly 50% of all meals are consumed outside the home
Confusion: keep public puzzled
-Eating advice can be inconsistent
-Focusing on single nutrients (just fiber, Vitamin B, not combo)
-Food companies promote their own nutrition - What are Hyper-convenient foods?
- Prepackaged, or ready to eat.
- How do companies promote eating more?
-
1. Advertising using:
-direct marketing (print and visual ads)
-discount incentives
2. Introduce new products (not always the best things for us nutritionally)
3. Serve Larger portions - Politics versus the Science; Describe this debate
-
Diet is a political issue
Struggle against corporate and individual interests
Policy decisions are made in light of competing influences
(obesity) -
From the video "The Bigger the Better" answer the following questions:
1. Why does the food industry provide big portions?
2. Why do we eat so much?
3. What is making the problem worse? -
1. Big portions lead to big sales
2.
-we are genetically programed to eat more and prefer fat
-dont realize how much we are eating b/c of thrown off visual cues
3. We want to get the most for our money and the food industry provides financial incentive to eat more than we should by offering larger sizes for minimal increases in price -
What is science telling us about food consumption?
1. What motivates food intake
2. What contradictions are there in this
3. What environmental influences are there?
4. How is this research relevant to the obesity epidemic? -
-homeostatically controlled behavior; we need energy
-controlled, non-homeostatically in a cultural way, or pleasure directed way (reward)
2. we are no longer deprived of food due to scarcity and there is now an obesity epidemic; our eating surpasses homeostatically monitored levels due to environment and cultural cues which lead to brain cues that make us feel good and want to eat more in a reward seeking mannar again relating to the obesity epidemic -
What cues influence how much we eat?
What can you do to take charge of your eating patterns? -
Cues such as eating with friends (eating more) or with a significant other (eating less) fast/slow music, bright lights, ect are all around us.
To take control of our own eating habits, the best defense is awareness, and knowing what causes us to eat more. - What are the trends of the Obesity Epidemic?
-
-65% of adults are overweight or obese
-15% of children are overweight or ar risk
-billions$ in direct and indirect economic costs
-a changing society (eating more and on the run)
-More calories are available then ever before
-affluent are doing better than less fortunate (have access to more nutritional foods) - What are Functional Foods?
-
A food product that has been clinically shown to promote health and can fall into the categories:
-Plant-based foods
-Animal-based foods - What are Plant Based Products? and the benefits of each?
-
1. Sulfur Containing compounds: GARLIC, ONIONS,(sulfur amino acids from plants of the Allium family)BROCCOLI(sulforaphane as cancer fighting agent)
Benefits: Inhibit cancer cells, lower cholesterol, protect against heart disease
2. Soy: Phytoestrogens and Isoflavones (mimic estrogen)
Benefits: decreased breast and ovarian cancer, decreased atherosclerosis, lower blood cholesterol
3. Tea (White, Green, Oolong Tea, Black): Catechins (also found in dark chocolate)
Benefits: Catechin antioxidants help prevent heart disease and DNA damage, Fluoride too!
4. Tomatoe Products (lycopene)
Benefits: Protection against breast cancer adn cancer of the GI tract, Protection against skin cancer and cardiovascular disease
5. Spinach and Kale (lutein)
Benefits: lutein is an antioxidant that filters UV rays, protects agains macular degeneration
6. Cranberries (Anthocyanins-purple/deep red color)
Benefits: Protect against heart disease and other age related mental decline
7. 'Miracle' Margarines (Grey area: not quite plant based)Phytosterols- resemble and act as cholesterol
Benefits: compete with cholesterol and absorb phytosterols and reduces amt. of cholesterol in our blood -
Which of the following does not include only cancer fighting foods and beverages?
1. Broccoli, chocolate, whole milk
2. Salmon, cheese, garlic
3. Tomatoes, tea, coffee
4. Soybeans, yogurt, water - 4. Soybeans, yogurt, WATER
-
List the levels of Phytoestrogens in the following soy products:
1. Green beans, fresh, raw
2. Green split peas, dry
3. Soybeans
4. Tofu
5. Soy Flour -
1. 2mg/kg
2. 73mg/kg
3. 340mg/kg
4. 150mg/kg
5. 230mg/kg
*Green split peas best source - What type of tomatoe product contains the highest level of lycopene content? Why is this?
- Lycopene is stable in processing and as we concentrate products like sauce or paste the lycopene color indicates a better source of this compound
-
Which of the following foods is not correctly paired with a functional ingredient?
1. Tomatoes: lycopene
2. Broccoli: Sulforaphane
3. Chocolate: lutein
4. Yogurt: probiotics - 3. Chocolate: LUTEIN
-
Which of the following is not correctly paired with a functional ingredient?
1. Garlic: sulfur amino acids
2. Soy foods: isoflavones
3. Cranberries: anthoxanthins
4. Cheese: conjugated linoleic acid - 3. Cranberries: anthoxanthins
- What are Phytochemicals?
-
Medicinal agents from plants
-25% of pharmaceutical agents
-primary source of medicine - Describe Sulforaphane which can be found in Broccoli:
-
-Carcinogens can damage DNA
-Sulforaphane triggers enzymes that block carcinogen damage
-very high levels in sprouts (but have ability to cause food born illness) - List the 4 types of healthy tea and the processing of each that attributes to the different levels of Catechins in each:
-
White: unfermented buds or young leaves; highest in catechins
Green: slight fermentaion and enzyme activity (polyphenol oxidase); rich in catechins
Oolong (red): partially fermented leaves; intermediate in catechins
Black: leaves are fully fermented; low in catechins
*less fermentation = more catechins - What does LDL and HDL stand for and what do they relate to?
-
Blood Cholesterol
LDL: bad cholesterol
HDL: Good Cholesterol - What provides the red color in tomato products and also provides for cancer protection?
- Lycopene
- List the Animal based functional products and the benefits of each
-
1. Yogurt (Powerhouse of health)
2. Probiotics: bacteria that ferment yogurt by producing Lactic Acid, good source of calcium and protein
3. Lactic Acid Bacteria: product of Probiotic bacteria fermentation
Benefits: promote health by slowing or preventing the initiation of tumors
4. Conjugated Linolic Acid CLA: a healthful trans fatty acid
-found in meat and full-fat dairy products
Benefits: suppresses heart disease and cancer, a re-partitioning agent - What are the Physiological effects of CLA?
- Can change the way the body lays down muscle mass at the expense of fat; more muscle and less fat with high levels
- What is the downside risk to CLA?
-
-Natural trans fatty acid
1. Associated with fatty foods
2. Link to Cholesterol
3. Association of some fats and cancer - What are 4 Research trends regarding Functional foods?
-
1. Amplify phytochemicals in plants: increaseing lycopene in tomatoes
2. Improved bioavailability of lutein: mixing wiht comounds such as olive oil or egg yolk improves uptake
3. Enhancing mineral and amino acid content
-SunActive Iron
-Calcium more bioavailable
-Whey protein isolates:
-Glycomacropeptide for PKU babies
-a Lactalbumin enhances absortion
-Lactoferrin iron binding protein and infection fighter
4. Exploring the role of Phytoestrogens
-Isoflavones:
a. bitter, beany flavor
b. reduced bioavailability of minerals
c. affect nutritional value of proteins
d. inhibit growth of human cancer cells
e. alleviation of vasomotor symptoms (decrease of hotflashes)
f. Fractionation of components - What is on the horizon for functional foods?
-
Foods formulated for maximum vitamin and mineral interactions
Eggs, milk and meat that meet human nutritional needs
Altered fruits, grains and veggies at harvest -
Which statement does not correctly define gene expression?
1. A copy of DNA is made, mRNA
2. mRNA is translated on the ribosome
3. t-RNA transfers building blocks (sugars, amino acids or fatty acids) to the ribosomes
4. Buildin - 3. t-RNA transfers building blocks to the ribosomes (only amino acids)
-
Which of the following associations is NOT correct?
1. Digestible fiber: 2Cal/g
2. Carbs: 4Cal/g
3. Protein: 4Cal/g
4. Lipid 9Cal/g - 1. Digestible fiber does not have any calories associated with it
-
Which of the following foods is NOT linked with the correct component?
1. Green Tea: catechins
2. Black Tea: theaflavins (from fermentation)
3. Cranberries: anthocyanins
4. Tomatoes: Lutein - 4. Tomatoes: lycopene
-
Nutrigenomics:
Genome-
Nutrigenomics-
Nutrigenetics- -
an organism's genetic material
the relationship of food, as nutrition, to gene regulation
the clinical response of individuals to specific nutrients (will vary on individual basis) - Biologically active Chemicals in food: List two types and subgroups of these
-
Nutritive Chemicals:
Vitamins
Minerals
Fatty Acids
Non-nutritive chemicals
Phytochemicals
Metabolites - Looking at targeted nutrition, what is the ultimate goal?
-
Yesterday: General Diet
Today: Functional Foods
Tommorrow: Personal Nutrition and finally Community Nutrition - Describe the steps of protein synthesis (Gene Expression)
-
1. DNA unwinds and exposes genetic information for a specific protein
2. Copies of DNA (m-RNA) are made
3. m-RNA leaves the nucleus via nuclear poresadn enters the cytoplasm
4. m-RNA binds to a ribosome so that code can be read
5. Each piece of code (3 base pairs) translates into one specific amino acid
6. t-RNA moves the amino acid into the correct place on the ribosome
7. Amino acids are joined into proteins via peptide bonds
8. completed polypetide chain folds into final conformation and is released - What are the Controls or Regulation of Gene Expression?
-
1. Physical Structure of DNA: can regulate the ability of RNA and transcription factors to access specific genes
2. Transcription Initiation:
-Promoter elements in DNA structure can turn on DNA synthesis
-Enhancer sequences enhance activity of RNA at a given site
-Interaction of activator/inhibitor proteins
3. Transcript Processing: controlling the rate of DNA transcription into m-RNA
4. RNA Transport: reulating m-RNA transport from nucleus to cytoplasm
5. Translational Initiation: the ability of ribosomes to recognize and begin translation
6. Post-translational Modification: formation of secondary and tertiary structure - Why is diet important and how does this relate in the context of gene expression?
-
Diet is an important factor in the onset or proliferation of human disease
Diet is an important factor in disease prevention
Chemicals in food can elicit specific reactions
Nutrients in the diet are involved in gene regulation - What nutrients are involved in Gene regulation?
-
Nutrient: Gene Impact; Disease
Fatty Acids: bind to transcription factors; Obesity
Folic Acid: control DNA methylation (processed); Cancer
Vitamin D: mRNA stability; Kidney disease
Flavones: Increase mRNA synthesis; Cancer
Theaflavins: Decrease m-RNA synthesis; Arthritis - What is the Key Mechanism of Action in Gene expression?
-
1. Nutrients bind to transcription factors
2. Transcriptoin factors bind DNA promoter regions
3. Gene expression is regulated - What is the effect of diet on lipid metabolism?
-
High fat vs. High carb
Short term high fat diets cause muscles to burn more lipid as fuel
High fat diet in rats increased mRNA expression of genes involved in fatty acid metabolism
Short term, high-fat diets sig. increased expression of:
Genes involved in fatty acid transport
Genes involved in oxidative metabolism in skeletal muscle
Increases in dietary fat can increase activity of genes necessary for fatty acid transport and oxidation - Effects of a diet enriched with omega-3 fatty acids?
- beneficial (veggie oil, fish, and fish oils)
- Nutrigenomics to Nutrigenetics
- Not everyone's body reacts the same way to nutrients and using Nutrigenomics we can move toward the idea of individualized dietary considerations
- Ethical issues of Nutrigenomics are:
-
1. Who decides which diseases to target
2. What about applications not related to health (athletic advances)
3. Will genetic testing become too prolific (genetic profile?)
4. Who will control the information (gov't or us?) - How much candy do we eat in a year? and what are our primary outlets? And Who are the Big players?
-
25lbs per person!
Supermarkets, Retailers and Vending Machines
M&M/Mars, Hershey, Nestle, and Kellogg - What are the two types of confections?
-
Sugar based: hard candy, gums and jellies, marshmallows, caramels, tableted candy
Chocolate and Coatings:
'true' chocolate, confectionery coatings - What are the key ingredients of confections?
-
Water: solvent and does not mix with oil or fat so emulsifier is needed to bridge; content may start out high, but most is boiled off
Sweetners: sweetness and texture
Protein and Fat
Protein: provides structure and texture (milk protein, veggie protein, gelatin)
Fat: provides texture, melting profile (Milk fat, vegetable fat)
Stabalizers: provide structure and texture (starch, pectin, gelatin)
Other ingredients: emulsifiers, flavors and colors, orgainc acids (tartness) - Describe the different sweetners used in confections
-
Sugar (sucrose, and lactose)
Corn syrup or HFCS (starch converted to glucose units)
Invert sugar (Sucrose converted to glucose and fructose)
Honey (natural)
Artificial sweetners (sugar alcohols, synthetics) - How are sugar based confections made?
- A mix of Sucrose, Corn syrup, Water and flavor are heated. Water is boiled off to 2-3%, and rapid cooling forms a sugar glass
- How are sugar based fondants made?
- Mix, sucrose, cornsyrup, water and flavor, heat with rapid concentration to 10% water and agitation while cooling to promote small crystal formation (cool w mixing) ex. Peppermint patty
- The strange case of chocolate covered cherries; how does the gel get in there?
- Cherry on top of a fondant; Invertase is key!
- Marshmellow Foam: how do we make it?
- Mix Sucrose and Corn syrup; heat and cool; add gelatin to cooled sugar syrup; whippign introduces air and produces a protein stabilized foam
- Caramel and Fudge: how do we make it?
-
Key ingredients: sugar, milk and fat
What allows for color? Reducing sugar + milk protein = Maillard Browning
What stabalizes the fat in water: Lecithin (emulsifier)
mono and diglycerides too - The story of Chocolate
-
Cocoa beans are seperated from dried pods and fermented
cocoa beans are roasted
Beans are shelled = nibs
Grinding of nibs releases cocoa powder and cocoa butter
Mix chocolate liquor, cocoa butter adn sugar
Refining to improve texture
conching for flavor development (add milk)
Tempering to control bloom (defect) - How do you make a confectionary coating and what seperates this from 'real' chocolate?
-
Cocoa butter is replaced with veggie fat
Steps of refining, conching and tempering still important
Lower cost fat source
Increased stability/functionality -
Which of the following terms is correctly associated?
1. Refining: smaller particle size
2. Conching: preventing fat bloom
3. Tempering: flavor development
4. Enrobing: blending flavors - 1. Refining: smaller particle size
-
Which statement is not true of confectionary ingredients?
1. Water: solvent for other ingredients
2. Sweetners: sucrose and starch
3. Protein: texture and browning
4. Fat: melting profile - 2. Sweetners: sucrose not(starch)
-
Which statement is correct regarding chocolate?
1. at the plantation, cocoa beans are fermetned in a controlled reaction using bacteria
2. roasting of cocoa beans of similar sizes produces a superior product
3. Nibs are ground to pro - 2. Roasting of similar sizes
-
More on Chocolate: White chocolate and types
Fat Bloom: -
lacks cocoa solids
sugar content varies (Dark, Bittersweet, semi-sweet, sweet)
white haze on real chocolate - What are New Horizons for the Candy Industry?
-
Confectionary coatings for food 'bars'
Chocolate for health
Low-carb chocolates
Confectionary products as medicine - What are some guidelines for meat consumption?
-
5.5-6.5 ounces per day of meat
Choose lean or lowfat
Select fish rich in Omega-3 fatty acids more often
choose dry beans as a meat alternative - What are meat consumption trends?
- Beef consumption has dropped, and Poultry consumption has increased; Pork has remained almost steady w/ slight increase (same with fish and shellfish)
- Meat Color:
-
Myoglobin (purple red): binds O2 in muscle; contains Fe; binding O2 to Fe and results in color
(cherry red) oxymyoglobin = presence of air
Oxidation of Iron (brown-red)Metamyoglobin; prolonged exposure
Cooked; Denatured Globin hemichrome (gray-brown) from Oxymyoblobin (cherry red)
Nitrite added = pink -
What are beef quality grades? (For young animals)
Marbling?
Maturity? -
Pridict eating quality
Based on marbling and animal maturity
For young animals:
highly marbled=prime
moderatly marbled=chioce
slightly marbled=select
Marbling: the presence of intramuscular fat
Maturity: muscle fibers toughen with age of animal - List the four lean cuts of beef along with the three minor cuts
-
-Chuck (near head), rib, loin/sirloin, round (near back)
-foreshank & brisket, plate, flank - How many ounces of lean meat is one serving and list its positive and negative nutrients
-
3oz
Positive:
high quality protein
100% Vit. B12
Heme Iron (absorbed better)
High in Zinc
Mg
Negative:
Cholesterol
Saturated fatty acids - How does cost relate to %fat of meat?
- meat that is lower in fat is more expensive
- Can you reduce fat in meat?
- yes, by rinsing cooked beef crumbles; this often reduces cost if you buy the fattier cut.
- What are some saftey points to remember for meat handling?
-
Meat begins as a sterile tissue
Incidence of pathogens is higher in ground meat
Safe handling instructions are on packaged meat
Cook to proper temperature -
Which of these statements is not true of ground beef?
1. 80/20 ground beef contains 80%fat and 20%lean tissue
2. Ground chuck is meat ground from a chuck roast
3. The fat content of ground beef crumbels can be lowerd by rinsing meat - 4. nutrition facts does not always appear but also the % of fat
-
Which meat pigment is correctly paired with its color?
1. Myoglobin: purple red
2. Metmyoglobin: cherry red
3. Oxymyoglobin: brown red
4. Nitrite: brown red - 1. myoglobin: purple red
-
Which of the following phrases is correct?
1. A steak high in marbling will be jucier due to higher external fat
2. For a steak to be labeled 'organic' the beef animal must have eaten natural food all its life
3. Irradiated organic h -
4. will be more tender
(natural has no standards) - How many dairy servings should we get a day? (get that calcium)
-
3 cups a day
1cup of milk or yogurt
1.5 oz hard cheese - What are the health benefits of Dairy foods?
-
Vital nutrients: calcium, vit. D, protein
Reduced risk of osteoporosis
Improved bone health - What are the basis steps of milk processing?
-
1. Receiving:
incoming milk tested for quality
2. Homogenization:
-milk is forced under pressure through very fine holes that reduce the size of the fat globules
-small fat globules are emulsified and remain in solution
3. Pasteurization:
-HTST 161C for 15sec (destroys pathogens and enzymes)
4. Fortification: added vitamin A&D - What are some specialty milk products?
-
1. Cream, half-half, flavored milk
2. Lactose free milk
(lactose -- glucose + Galactose)
-Enzymatic breakdown of lactose (often sweeter)
-ideal for persons with lactose intolerance - Fermented Milk Products/Cultured Dairy Products Process:
-
Lactose -- Lactic Acid + CO2
-Bacterial fermentation
-Proteins gel as acid is produced
-Chymosin/rennet (coagulant) is added to ensure gel formation
-ripening or aging allows flavor developing - Why is Cheddar cheese different from Brie?
-
Milk source-cow, goat, sheep, water buffalo
Type of bacteria included in starter
Ripening org. may be added (mold species)
Aging (length of time)
Some cheese is directly acidified (cottage cheese) - How do you make processed cheese food?
-
Natural cheese, grated
Add:
-Emulsifiers
-Milk solids, fat, then, blend and heat. - What are the basic ingredients in ice cream?
-
1. Cream or Milkfat:
-Whole milk, cream, butter
-flavor and creamy texture
2. Milk Solids
-Nonfat milk powder or condensed skim milk
-protein and carbohydrate (texture)
3. Sugar:
-Sweetness
-Lowers the freezing point
4. Minor ingredients - What are the 3 Basic steps in the manufacture of ice cream?
-
1. Preparing the Mix
-Mix cream/milk, milk solids, sugar and minor ingredients
-Pasteurize to ensure saftey and dissolve solids
MINOR INGREDIENTS:
-Emulsifiers: lecithin, MG, DG
-Stabilizers: gelatin, gums
-Flavoring agents and colorants
2. Freezing the mix
-mix is frozen in a barrel freezer
-air is incorp (over-run)
-large number of small ice crystals are formed (rapid)
(Ice cream is a protein foam stabilized by cold)
3. Hardening: solid freezing sets ice crystals adn firms the product (-20C) - How can you tell between a high quality ice cream product and the other?
-
The amount of air is tightly controlled
-Lighter: lower fat, and higher air
-Heavier: higher fat, and lower air (50%)
(Ice Cream is sold by volume, not by weight) -
Which statement is not correct of the manufacture of cheese?
1. Cheese is preserved due to acid and low Aw
2. Process cheese can be made from any hard cheese
3. Bacteria that produce kactic acid create an environment favorable for th - 4. Blue cheese is not a surface mold, its throughout the cheese
-
Which of the following phrases is not correct regarding ice cream?
1. High over-run equals high fat
2. Low over-run equals high fat
3. High over-run equal high air
4. Low over-run equals low air - 1. High over-run equal low fat
-
Which of the following statements is not true regarding cheese?
1. Cheese is a protein gel
2. Cheese is produced via a mixed fermentation reaction (mix of fermenting agents)
3. Bacteria ferment lactose to lactic acid
4. During a - 2. Cheese is fermented only by bacteria
- What is the recommended daily intake of fruits and veggies?
-
Fruit: 2 cups per day (we arnt quite getting this amt)
Veggies: 2.5-3 cups per day - What are the important Nutrients in F &V?
-
Fruity:
-Naturally low in fat and cal.
-Source of K, dietary fiber, vitamin C, folate
Veggies:
-most low in fat and cal
-no cholesterol
-source of K, dietary fiber, folate, vitamins A,E,C - Describe the plant tissues of F&V
-
Fruit: A seed and its covering (cherries, apples, pears, tomatoes, avacodo)
Veggie: plant cultivated for an edible part
-seeds and pods (peas and beans)
-bulb, roots and tubers (onions, carrots, potatoes)
-flowers, buds, stems, leaves (broccoli, lettuce, celery, spinach) - Is it a fruit or a veggie? How can you tell?
-
Fruits are most commonly consumed as if they were veggies: cucumber, tomatoe, peas, beans, eggplant, avacado
And rhubarb, a vegetable, is most commonly consumed as if it were a fruit
DOES IT HAVE SEEDS? - What are the 4 stages of plant development?
-
Growth: cell division and enlargement
Maturation: metabolic changes
Ripening: late maturity, harvest
Senescence: aging and death (begins to decay)
*overlap of growth and maturation in life continueum and also between ripening and senescence - Maturation of plant: Major components; %Weight; Importance: List Minor as well
-
1. Water 70-95%; Succulence, metabolism
2. Carbohydrate 2-40%; Structure, sweetness, energy reserve
3. Protein 1-2%; Enzymes, texture
4. Lipid <1%; cell structure, cuticle (waxy layer on surface)
1. Organic acids <3%; Turgor, tartness
2. Vitamins and Minerals <1%; Vitamin C, Vitamin A, folate
3. Phenolic acids (tannins) <1%; Astringency (pucker up)
4. Volatiles; aroma and flavor - What is the consumption pattern of F&V in America?
- We dont necessarily consume the F&V's that are most beneficial to our health
- What is the Fruit ripening process?
-
1. Color changes:
-chlorophyll (green)content in the skin drops
-Yellow and red pigments (carotenoids) are synthesized (tomatoe) or revealed (banana)
-Purple red (anthocyanins) remain
2. Changes in Carbohydrates
-Conversion of starch to sugar (alters taste and texture)
-breakdown of polymeric carbohydrates (pectin and hemicellulose)(softening)
3. Change in pH
-Org. acids decline and pH rises (no longer as sour)
4. Volatile compounds produced
-Synthesis is initiated
5. Development of a waxy Cuticle:
-affording protection to the tissue
-conserving water
6. Changes in Respiration: differs for climacteric vs. non-climacteric fruit - What is the process of respiration?
- Glucose +O2 --> CO2 + H2O + heat
- What are the two processes that still occur after harvesting fruits and veggies?
-
1. Respiration
2. Transpiration (lose water as they breath) - What are climacteric fruits vs. non-climacteric fruits; examples?
-
Climactic: slight rise in the decline of respiration pattern when ethylene (ripening hormone) is released right before senescence
(apple, pear, peach, tomatoe, avocado, banana)
Non-climactic: general decline in respiration through ripening and senescence
(all veggies, cherries, cucumbers, melons, berries, citrus, pineapple) - How can quality of F&V be maintained?
-
Slow respiration and enzymatic reactions by keeping temperatures low
Preserve quality: starch sugar balance
Prevent Chill injury - What is starch-sugar balance and how can it be affected in Sweet Corn/Peas, and Potatoes?
-
Sweet Corn/Peas
Sugar is desired, but w/ heat:
Sugar --> Starch
Potatoes
Starch is desired but w/ cold:
Starch --> Sugar - What is chill injury?
-
Seen in fruits and veggies of tropical and subtropical origin (tomatoes, sweet potatoes, bananas)
-an imbalance in metabolism
-toxic products accumulate
-cells colapse
-Necrosis (browning) - Maintaining quality: Control water loss; How is this done?
-
-Protect natural waxy cuticle on tissue surface
-Increase humidity of air (misters in grocerty store)
-Package to maintain moisture
-Reduce respiration by lowering temperature (reduces water loss) - Maintaining quality: modified atmosphere
-
Controlling respiration:
-Decrease O2 available
-Increase CO2 - What are the three ways the quality can be maintained in F&V?
-
1. Lower Temperature
2. Prevent H20 Loss
3. Modify the Atmosphere - How can we induce ripening?
-
Climacteric fruits will 'ripen' if exposed to ethylene
Avocados, banans pears and other fruits can be foreced to go through some changes if gased with ethylene.
* most climacteric fruits are harvested and shipped 'green' (paper bag) -
Which statement describes the current dietary guidelines?
1. Current guidelines recommend consuming 3 cups of fruits each day
2. Current guidelines recommend consuming 2 cups of veggies daily
3. Current guidelines recommend consuming - 3. get a wide varitey of brightly colored F&V
-
Which one of the following foods contains cholesterol?
peanut butter
yogurt
beer
potato chips - Yogurt
-
Which component in fruits and veggies is not correctly associated?
1. Water: succulence
2. Carbohydrate: sweetness and structure
3. Protein: energy reserves
4. Lipid: cuticle - 3. Protein: enzymes
- A premium ice cream has the following composition per 1 cup serving: 26 grams saturated fat, 6 grams unsaturated fat, 25 grams total carbohydrate (24 grams sugar, 1 gram soluble fiber), 29 grams protein, 200 mg calcium. What is the the calorie content of
- 496
-
Climacteric and non climacteric fruits can be distinguised by thier pattern of...
1. Transpiration
2. Respiration
3. Ripening
4. Transduction - 2. Respiration
-
What are grains and what is the daily recommended serving?
What whole grain options do we have? -
Bread, cereal, rice and pasta
-6 to 8 oz equiv. per day
-make half whole grain
Whole grains: popcorn, 100% whole wheat bread, brown rice -
What is the percentage of calories from fat for the premium ice cream in question 2? (round to the nearest whole number, if necessary)*496 cal; 32g fat
65%
50%
58%
45% - 58%
-
Which of the following foods would most likely contain partially hydrogenated fats?
margarine
peanut butter
cream cheese
butter - margarine
-
Match the following foods with the appropriate functional ingredient:
phytoestrogen
catechin
conjugated linoleic acid
probiotics
lutein
anthocyanin
-
1. Tomatoes: lycopene
2. Cranberries: anthocyanin
3. Kale: Lutein
4. Butter: CLA
5. Soy: phytoestrogen
6. Broccoli: sulforaphane
7. Yogurt: probiotics
8. Green Tea: catechins - What are the important nutrients in grains?
-
1. Dietary fiber
2. B Vitamins (folate, niacin, ribolfavin)
3. Minerals (iron, Mg, selenium)
5. Protein and Energy -
Why are grains the foundation of our diet?
ADVANTAGES VS DRAWBACKS -
Advantages:
-Low fat energy
-Fiber source
-Protein source
Drawbacks:
-lack some vitamins and amino acids
-Gluten (protein) a problem for some -
Which one of the following describes benefits uniquely associated with soy foods?
increased body protein and decreased body fat
decreased breast and ovarian cancer
lowered cholesterol and protection against heart disease
- decreased breast and ovarian cancer
- corn, oats, adn other grains are often fed to animals. Why dont we eath them instead?
-
Protein Quality:
-meat is high quality protein source
-grains are incomplete, low in lysine
-Complementary proteins are key to grains as a protein source -
Larger serving sizes result in more calories being consumed.
True
False - True
-
Which of the following cues would NOT encourage people to eat more?
eating under bright lights and with loud music playing
bigger plates
seeing leftovers such as chicken bones at the table
bigger serving sizes - seeing leftover chicken bones cues us to how much we have eaten
-
Which of the following foods is NOT a primary allergen in children?
peanut
egg
fish/shellfish
dairy - dairy
- What is the structure of cereal grain?
-
Bran: outermost layer of cells (testa)
Aleurone: seperates bran from rest of the grain
Endosperm: cells packed with starch granules surrounded by a protein matrix
Germ (embryo): rich in B vitamins, oil, vitamin E -
According to the popcorn studies described in the Food Psychology lecture, people would over-eat even when the food quality was poor.
True
False - False: people overate when container size was larger
- The label on a confectionary product reads: sugar, corn syrup, cocoa butter, water, chocolate liquor, high fructose corn syrup, soy lecithin, partially hydrogenated vegetable oil, artificial flavors, citric acid, potassium sorbate and sodium benzoate, FD
- this product contains a trans-fat
-
An allergic response to food is the result of an adverse reaction to a protein in that food.
True
False - True
-
Match the following meat pigment with the appropriate color:
purple red
graybrown
bright red
brownish red
1. metmyoglobin
2. oxymyoglobin
3. myoglobin
4. de -
metmyoglobin: brown red
oxymyoglobin: cherry red
myoglobin: purple red
denatured globin: gray brown - How is grain processed into flour?
-
1. Milling: seperate endosperm from bran and germ; grinding endosperm into flour-sized particles
2. Bleaching and Aging: remove natural carotenoids, improve baking quality -
For the highest quality, freshest steak, you would choose a highly marbeled prime steak that is purple red in color.
True
False - True
- Define: Enriched and Fortified
-
Enriched: replacing nutrients removed during processing (iron, B vitamins)
Fortified: cereals as carriers of nutrients that may be deficient in the diet (folate, B12, vitamins A &D, calcium) -
Which one of the following statements is true?
E. coli O157:H7 is present in about 50% of feedlots
cattle can carry E. coli O157:H7 but not appear sick
chances for cross-contaimination are low in a meat fabrication environment < - cattle can carry E. coli but not appear sick
- Name some specialty converted products?
-
Converted rice: soak rice to drive vitamins and mineral from bran into endosperm
Rolled oats: steam groats then drum-dry
Flaked-cereals: cook endosperm with other ingredients then flake and bake -
Which one of the following types of ground beef has the most fat?
ground round
ground beef
ground chuck
ground sirloin - ground beef???
- What makes popcorn pop?
-
1. Water: converts to steam
2. Starch: endosperm cooks and gelatinizes
3. Protein: protein matrix stabilizes starch - What is the secret to great popcorn?
-
1. Start w/ corn kernels w/ 10% to 14% moisture
2. Have the temp of the pan just right
3. Allow moisture to escape while poping -
Chocolate covered cherries have a cherry surrounded by a liquid center and are enrobed in chocolate. What is NOT a key step in manufacturing chocolate covered cherries?
fondant is changed into syrup
a cherry-flavored syrup is injected - A cherry flavored syrup is NOT injected into the center
-
Which of the following associations is NOT correct?
endosperm: starch granules
germ: bacteria-rich region
alerone: separates bran and endosperm
bran: outermost cells - Germ: B vitamins
-
Senescence is the stage in the life of a plant that is characterized by death. Maturation is best characterized by:
death of plant tissue
edibility index
metabolic changes
increased growth - Metabolic changes
-
Match the following physiological characteristics of fruits and vegetables with the component that provides that characteristic:
water
carbohydrates
phenolic acids
aromatic
l -
Water: succulence
Carbohydrates: structure, sweetness
Phenolic acids: astringency
Aromatic: volatiles
lipids: cellular membranes -
Climacteric and non-climacteric fruits and vegetables can be differentiated by patterns of:
ripening
respiration
maturation
transpiration - respiration
-
Beans and rice would be described as which type of proteins?
complimentary
component
complete
high quality - complimentary
-
Which of the following is correct regarding the manufacture of ice cream?
plate freezer whips air into the mix
higher overrun: lower quality
freezing stabilizes a protein gel
mixture of fat, milk solids and sugar is paste - Higher overrun: lower quality
-
A family of 3 living in Madison earning $8.50 per hour and headed by a single woman would likely experience food insecurity.
True
False - true
-
Which of the following associations is NOT correct?
Campylobacter: chicken
E. coli O157:H7: ground beef
Salmonella: ham
Listeria: deli meats - Salmonella: egg
-
Chocolate, candy and other sweets are a major culprit in causing hyperactivity and other behavioral problems in children.
True
False - False
-
Which of the following foods does not contain fiber?
oreo cookies
pasta
cheese
jam - cheese
-
Match the food with the appropriate food group according to MyPyramid:
dairy
fruit
meat
grains
vegetables
1. orange juice
2. popcorn
3. corn
-
Orange juice: fruit
Popcorn: grains
Corn: veggie
Cheese: dairy
Peanut Butter: meat -
Which one factor does NOT influence microbial growth?
Acidity
Air
Fat
Water - Fat
-
Fat free food allows you to eat all you want without gaining weight.
True
False - False
-
Match the additive with its associated use.
sweetner
artificial sweetener
cure meat
preservative
flavor enhancer
emulsifier
natural color
-
Sweetner: HFCS
Artificial Sweetner: aspertame
Cure Meat: Nitrite
Preservative: sulfite
Flavor enhancer: MSG
Emulsifier: lecithin
Natural color: caramel
Syn. water insol. color: lake
Syn. sol. color: red #40 -
Match the food component with the number of calories per gram it provides.
7 calories per gram
9 calories per gram
4 calories per gram
0 calories per gram
1. protein
2 -
Protein: 4
Fat: 9
Alcohol: 7
Fiber: 0 -
Match the food component with the number of calories per gram it provides.
0 calories per gam
9 calories per gram
4 calories per gram
1. starch
2. oil
3. water -
Starch: 4
Oil: 9
Water: 0 -
Match the confectionery ingredient with the purpose.
melting point
sweetness
stabilizer
texture
solvent
1. water
2. sugar
3. protein
4. gelat -
Water: solvent
Sugar: sweetness
Protein: texture
Gelatin: stabilizer
Fat: melting point -
How many calories are in 1 pound?
3500
9
2800
4 - 3500
-
Which of the following statements is not correct regarding gene expression?
the primary structure of a protein is the sequence of amino acids
each segment of genetic code (3 base pairs) translates into one protein molecule
in ea - Each segment of genetic code (3base pairs) translates into an amino acid
-
Which phrase is correct regarding gene expression?
a copy of DNA is made, c-DNA
t-RNA transfer building blocks (monosaccharides, amino acids, or fatty acids) into position
multiple copies of c-DNA leave the nucleus for translati - RNA
-
Which of the following foods is not correctly paired with its starting material?
1. Wine: vinegar
2. Grapes: wine
3. Milk: cheese
4. Corn: beer - beer
-
Which statement is not correct regarding cheese?
1. cheese making was into. 1890
2. cheese can be made from the milk of cow, sheep, goat, buffalo, and yak
3. there is more process cheese sold than 'natural' cheese
4. Cheese is p - 1. Cheese making is ancient
- Cheddar is Am.'s fav cheese. What is #2?
- Mozzarella
- What does the fermentation process benefit?
-
Preserving food (acid or alcohol)
adds varitey to diet
inhibits pathogens
Increases nutritional value - What is the fermentation reaction?
-
C6H12O6--> 2CO2 + acid/alcoh
(sugar) - What is the difference between natural and controlled fermentation?
-
Natural: existing microorg (sauerkraut)
Controlled: added microorg -
What species is used in fermentation of:
1. Sauerkraut
2. Cheese -
1. bacteria -->acid
2. bacteria -->acid - Describe cheese fermentation
-
Lactose--> lactic acid + CO2
Extended shelf life due to lower Aw and lower pH - What are the steps in the manufacture of cheddar cheese?
-
1. mix: milk and bacterial starter
2. add: coagulant (cymosin)
3. Cut/Ceddar: curd form
4. Form/Age: blocks of cheese aged - What is rennet?
- rennet is the enzyme involved in the formation of cheese curds (like cymosin)
-
What types of starters are involved in the following fermentations and what major product is associated:
Yogurt (protein gel forms)
Beer
Wine
Bread
Vinegar (sour wine) & Sausage
Tempeh
Kifir (carbonated yogurt -
1. mixed bacterial-->acid
2. yeast-->alcohol
3. yeast-->alcohol
4. yeast-->acid
5. bacteria-->acid
6. mold-->
7. yeast + bacteria (mixed) -
According to lecture and the reading, which of the following does NOT accurately describe the manufacture of cheese?
in the manufacture of cheese, milk is preserved by acid and dehydration
yeast culture is added to produce the acid nee - a bacterial starter (lactose) is used
-
Which of the following associations is not correct re allergen testing?
challenge:food diary
skin test:food extract placed on scratch
RAST:blood test - Challenge: food eating
-
Which statement is true?
lactose intolerance involves milk protein
lactose free milk is a product of bacteria fermentation
lactose-free milk is sweeter than regular milk
lactose intolerance is a common food allergy in chi - lactose free milk is sweeter than regular milk
-
Which phrase is correct?
in white chocolate, cocoa butter is replaced by vegetable oils
chocolate liquor contains cholesterol and alcohol
marshmallows are an example of a protein foam
confectionary coatings are differenti - protein foam
- What are the steps in the manufacture of beer?
-
1. Malting: allow barley to sprout; enzymes convert starch to maltose (amylase)
2. Mashing: mix malted barley with water; heat to 152F (activates glucoamylase = 2 glucose); hops and adjuncts add flavor
3. Heating: boil mash to remove water and stop enzymes; filter wort through grain mass (lautering: gran mass and sparging: adding water)
4. Fermentation: add yeast; Glucose-->Ethanol +CO2
5. Aging: pasturize (heat to stop yeast), bottle, carbonate -
Match the following terms associated with beer with the appropriate definition or phrase:
preparation of the wort
ingredient added to beer as a bittering agent, preservative and an aromatic
ingredient -
Mashing: prep wort
Hops: added as a bittering agent, preservative and aromatic
Fermentation: alcohol + CO2
Yeast: begin fermentation -
Match the following terms associated with beer with the appropriate definition or phrase:
golden color with a flowery aroma, lots of malt flavor and a dry finish with a bitter taste
German-style dark beer
-
1. Pale Ale: Golden color w/flowery aroma, lots of malt flavor and dry finish
2. Bock: German style dark beer
3. Doppelbock: stronger than regular bock, high in alcohol
4. Pilsner: lightly roasted malt gives a light color -
What is the % DV for fat in one serving of premium ice cream with 32 grams of fat, 25 grams of total carbohydrate, 29 grams of protein, and 200 mg calcium? (round to the nearest whole number, if necessary)
50%
48%
49%
47% - 48%
-
According to the reading and lecture material, from 1999 to 2001, as the economy entered a recession, food insecurity and hunger increased.
True
False - True
- What do Omega 3's (third C in has double bond) and Omega 6's do?
-
highly unsaturated fats that protect vision, immune system and cell function
(fish, flax, canola oil, nuts, wheat germ) - Enova Oil?
- not stored as fat; diglyceride; research 1-2 lbs
- The ice cream that you are planning for lunch has 300 cal and 23g fat. What % of cal. from fat
- 69%
- On a 2000 cal. diet an ice cream cone w/ 300 cal and 23g fat is what % of fat budget?
- 34%
-
Which of the following nutrients is not correctly associated with an excellent food source?
1. Vitamin A: carrots
2. Vitamin C: strawberries
3. Vitamin D: fish oil
4. Vitamin B12: tofu - Vitamin B12: Animal products only
-
Which of the following is not paired correctly:
1. Folate: spinach
2. Calcium: oj
3. Iron: meat
4. Vitamin K: leafy greens - Calcium: milk
-
Vitamins:
Minerals: -
organic comp vital to life needed in small amts.
inorganic molecules, needed in small amts - What are fat soluble vitamins?
-
A,D, E & K
Carried in the blood on lipid
Can store these in our body - Fat soluble vitamins function and source?
-
Vitamin A (B Carotene): antioxidant (red/orange/yellow veggeis)
D (sunshine): helps bones absorb calcium (fortified milk and cereal, sunlight)
E (tocopherol): antioxidant, helps support healthy immune system and cardi system (Peanut butter, wheat germ, nuts, oil)
K: vital for blood clotting, bone strength and maintenance (made internally, leafy greens, broccoli) - List Water Soluable vitamins
- B-complex vitamins and Vitamin C; not stored in body and regular intake is important
- What is Folate? (folic acid)
- water sol. vitamin; vital for growth and metabolism, presence in utero reduces the risk of spina bifida (leafy greens, oj, fortified cereals/supplement)
- What is the function of B12 and sources?
- helps from red blood cells, and helps the body utilize fatty acids adn amino acids (animal products only; supplements for vegetarians)
- Function and Sources of Vitamin C?
- Antioxidant, aids in the absorbtion of plant based iron, vital for tissue integrity and wound healing (Citrus fruits, green peppers, and strawberries)
- What are the classes of minerals and what are examples of these?
-
Major minerals: Calcium, Phosphorus, and Mg
Electrolytes (fluid balance): sodium, chloride, Potassium
Trace Minerals: Iron, Iodine, Zinc, Chromium, Copper, F, Mn, Molybdenum, Selenium - What is calciums function and sources?
- Dev. of healthy bones and teeth (milk and dairy, leafy greens and bones of fish)
- What is Sodiums function and source?
- Helps reg. body fluids and transmit nerve impulses (most foods contain, but excess is usually added in processing)
- What is the function and source of Iron?
- Delivers oxygen to cells; Anemia (Meats, Legumes)
- How are supplements regulated?
-
The label must be in FDA format
The label must be truthful and not misleading
Registration or approval are not required - Why might the elderly need a supplement/women/low calorie?
-
Vitamin D, Calcium
Calcium/Iron
General supplement - What are the three types of food related hazards?
-
Bilogical
Chemical
Physical - List three important scientists related to the study of microorganisms and what they discovered?
-
Van Leeuwnhoek: 1st microscope
Pasteur: Swan neck flask; spontaneous generation
Koch: germ thoery of disease (a particular microbe causes a particular disease) - What are the two types of cell structure?
-
Eukaryote: membrane bound DNA
Prokaryote: DNA is free -
Bacteria:
Yeast:
Mold:
Virus: -
-single cell prokaryote
-single cell eukaryote
-multicellular eukaryote
-obligate intracellular parasite