A & P ILab 1-4
Terms
undefined, object
copy deck
- above, along the long axis, toward the head
- superior (cranial)
- below, along the long axis, toward the tail
- inferior (caudal)
- front, most forward bellyside
- anterior (ventral)
- back, toward backside of body
- posterior (dorsal)
- toward the midline
- medial
- away from the midline or medial
- lateral
- nearer the trunk or attached end
- proximal
- farther from the trunk or point of attachment
- distal
- toward or at the body surface
- superficial (external)
- away from the body surface, inside
- deep (internal)
- Describe the anatomical position
- body is erect, feet slightly apart, head and toes pointed forward, arms hanging at sides, palms facing forward
- Body Plane: down the median line but not center
- para sagittal
- Body Plane: down te center
- mid sagittal; right and left
- Body Plane: longitudal, divides into anterior/postior parts
- frontal (coronal)
- Body Plane: horizontal, dividing superior & inferior parts
- transverse (horizontal, cross section)
- orbital
- eye
- buccal
- cheek
- cervical
- neck
- throacic
- chest
- axillary
- armpit
- brachial
- arm
- umbilical
- naval
- abdominal
- abdomen
- antecubital
- front of elbow
- inguinal
- groin
- femoral
- thigh
- pubic
- genital
- scapular
- shoulder blades
- lumbar
- loin
- gluteal
- buttocks
- popliteal
- back of knee
- sural
- calf
- occipital
- back of head or base of skull
- deltoid
- back of shoulder
- cubital (olecranal)
- back of elbow
- Head, Neck and Trunk form what body region?
- axial region
- Appendages or limbs form what body region?
- appendicular region
- This region consists of the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis
- Trunk (torso)
- Total magnification is computed by
- multiplying the ocular magnification by the objective magnification
- Scanning power is ___x
- 4
- Low power is ___x
- 10
- High power is ____x
- 40
- Oil immersion is ____x
- 100
- Composed of all atoms and molecules necessary to maintain life
- chemical level
- cells are made of molecules
- cellular level
- consists of similiar types of cells
- tissue level
- made of up different types of tissue
- ogran level
- consists of different organs that work closely together
- system level
- made up of the organ system
- organism level (human)
- Which organ system is responsible for providing an external body coverin and protection?
- integumentary (skin)
- The diaphragm muscle forms the floor of a cavity located inside the rib cage. This cavity is the
- thoracic
- The large cavity below the diaphragm is named the
- abdominal cavity
- Which organ occupies almost all of the space in the cranial cavity?
- the brain
- In what cavitity is the spinal cord located?
- vertebral and dorsal
- Where are the internal reproductive organs located?
- pelvic cavitity
- Adenine binds with
- Thymine
- Cytosine binds with
- Guanine
- Where in the cell is DNA located?
- nucleus
- Where does replication occur?
- nucleus
- When you have two molecules and each one has an "old" strand and a "new" strand, this is called what?
-
semi conservative replication
or DNA replication - The large cavity below the diahragm is named the ____ cavitity
- abdominal
- Which organ system is responsible for providing an external body covering and protection?
- integumentary (skin)
- DNA provides a linear arrangement of genes which are located within the _____ coiled with proteins and called _____
-
nucleus
Chromatin (DNA & protein) - Describe the shape of DNA
-
double stranded polymer
sides: sugar phosphate
rungs: nitrogenous bases - Adenine binds with _____
- Thymine
- Cytosine binds with _____
- Guanine
- When you have 2 molecules and each one has one "old" strand and one "new" strand, this is called what?
- semi conservative or DNA replication
- The enzymes that add nucleotides to te new growing DNA chain are ___
- DNA polymerase
- Transcription is the process of taking the genetic message from the _____ to the ______
-
nucleus
cytoplasma -
RNA is different from DNA in:
1.
2.
3. -
1. single stranded
2. sugar ribose (instead of deyoxyribose)
3. base is uracil (instead of thymine) - Translation uses the information carried on the RNA to assemble _____ chains, and when finished these chains become _____
-
polypeptide
protein - Building block of nucleic acids; consist of sugar, a nitrogen-containing base & a phosphate group
- nucleotide
- A, G, T, C, U
- nitrogenous bases
- A (adenine) and G (guanine)
- purines
- C (cytosine) T (thymine) U (uracil)
- pyridines
- DNA is what?
- deoxyribonucleic acid; a nucleic acid found in all living cells, carries the organisms hereditary information
- barlike bodies of tightly coiled chromatins; visiable during cell division
- chromosomes
- Makes up 60% of chromatin
- histone
- What determines the order of amino acids in the polypeptide chain?
- DNA codons
- codon is what
- 3 nucleotides
- rRNA
- ribsomal RNA
- tRNA
- transfer RNA
- mRNA
- messenger RNA
- Transcription is also known as what
- protein synthesis
- fundamental unit of chromatin; consists of a strand of DNA wound around a cluster of 8 histone proteins; also called chromatid (genetic material)
- nucleosome
- structures in the DNA that carry the hereditity factors; made of DNA and protein
- chromatin
- a chain of amino acids
- polypeptide
- complex substance containing carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen; composes 10-30% of cell mass
- protein
- organic compound containing carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen; building block of protein
- amino acid
- transfer; short chain RNA molecules that transfer amino acids to the ribosome
- tRNA
- messenger; long nucleotide strands that reflect the exact nucleotide sequence of the genetically active DNA and carry the message of the latter
- mRNA
- ribosomal; a constituent of ribosome; exists within the ribosomes of cytoplasma and assists in protein synthesis
- rRNA
- cytoplasmic organelles at which proteins are synthesized
- ribosome
- provides an area for storage and transport of the proteins made on the ribosomes to other cell areas; has the ribosomes
-
rough endoplasmic reticulum
rough ER - has no function in protein synthesis, rather site of steroid and lipid synthesis, metabolism and drug detox, transfers
-
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
smooth ER - the 3 base sequence on a messnger RNA molecule that provides the genetic information used in protein synthesis
- codon
- 3 base sequence complementary to the messenger RNA codon
- anti codon
- the cellular material surrounding the nucleus and enclosed by the plasma membrane
- cytoplasma
- nitrogenous base + sugar phosphate =
- nucleotide
- 2 complementary nucleotides =
- nucleotide pair
- ______ occurs in the nucleus, uses mRNA, and replaced T (thymine) with _____
-
Transcription
U (uracil) - ______ occurs outside the nucleus in the cytoplasma, ____ and ____ are used
-
Translation
rRNA
tRNA - ___RNA is found in the ribosomes during translation
- r
- ___RNA brings in the amino acids during translation
- t
- Body Movement: arm raised, leg bent to the back at knee
- Flexion
- Body Movement: arm extended backwards, leg straight brought parallel to other leg
- Extension
- Flexion is opposite of
- Extension
- Extension is opposite of
- Flexion
- Body Movement: away from body (leg or arm)
- abduction
- Body Movement: towards body (leg or arm)
- adduction
- Opposite of abduction
- adduction
- Opposite of adduction
- abduction
- Body Movement: radius & ulna are parallel
- supination (soup in my hand...palm up)
- Body Movement: radius rotates over ulna
- pronation (palm down in prone position)
- Opposite of supination
- pronation
- Opposite of pronation
- supination
- Body Movement: closing of mouth (mandible)
- elevation
- Body Movement: opening of mouth (mandible)
- depression
- Opposite of elevation
- depression
- Opposite of depression
- elevation
- Body Movement: swinging leg outward
- lateral rotation
- Body Movement: swinging leg inward
- medial rotation
- Opposite of lateral rotation
- medial rotation
- Opposite of medial rotation
- lateral rotation
- Body Movement: sole of foot turns medially
- inversion
- Body Movement: sole of foot faces laterally
- eversion
- Opposite of inversion
- eversion
- Opposite of eversion
- inversion
- seperates cell contents from the surrounding environment
- plasma membrane
- watery environment, cellular material surrounding the nucleus & enclosed b the plasma membrane
- cytoplasm
- control center, necessary for reproduction
- nucleus
- provides an area for storage & transport of te proteins made on the ribosomes to other cell areas
- rough endoplasmic reticulum
- has no function in protein synthesis; rather it is a site of steroid & lipid synthesis, lipid metabolism & drug detoxification, transfers
- smooth endoplasmic reticulum
- tiny sperical bodies composed of RNA & protein; actual site of protein synthesis; floating free or attached to a membranous structure (rough ER) in the ctytoplasm
- ribosome
- found close to the nucleus; plays a role in packaging prteins or other substances for export from the cell or incorporation into the plasma membrane & in packaging lysosomal enzymes
- golgi complex (apparatus)
- contains enzymes that oxidize foodstuffs to produce cellular energy (ATP); power house of the cell
- mitochondria
- various sized membranous sacs containing digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases); functions to digest worn out cell organelles & foreign substances that enter the cell; have the capacity of total cell destruction if ruptured
- lysosome
- small lysosoe like membranous sacs containing oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen, peroxide & other harmful chemicals
- peroxisome
- located in the nucleus, small round body composed primarily of proteins & ribsomal particles, which are the actual protein - synthesizing "factories", mass of largely RNA
- nucleolus
- provide cellular support; function in intracellular transport, formed largely of actin, a contractile protein & thus are important in cell mobility (muscle cells)
- microfilament
- provide cellular support; function in intracellular transport form the internal structure of the centrioles & help determine cell shape
- microtubule
- paired, cyliindrical bodies lie at right angles to each other close to nucleus, direct the formation of the mitotic spindle during cell division, form the base of cilia & flagella
- centriole
- "eyelashes", whiplike motile cellular extensions that occur, typically in large numbers on the exposed surface of certain cells, moves substances in one direction across cell surfaces
- cilium
- projections formed by centrioles that are substantially longer; "tail", propels the cell itself (sperm)
- flagellum
- membrane bound compartment that serves a variety of secretory, excretory & storage functions, transport (bad cholestrol)
- vacuole
- engulf outside to bring it in, similiar to phagocytosis; below or touching cell membrane
- pinocytic vesicle
- onset cell division, chromatin threads coil & shorten to form these, densly staining, short, barlike,
- chromosome
- spreading of particles in gas or solution wiht movement toward uniform distribution
- diffusion
- passage of a solvent & dissolved substances through a membrane or filter
- filtration
- the movement of large particles & macromolecules across a plasma membrane
- vesicular
- substances cross membrane without engery input from the cell
- passive transport
- cells provide the metabolic energy (ATP) needed to move substances across membrane
- active transport
- Diffusion is based on
- concentration gradients
- Filtration is based on
- pressure gradient
- Relationship between molecular weight and diffusion rate is what
- higher the molecular weight, the less diffusion will occur; particles are larger/heavier therefore do not move far/fast
-
Inside cell: +NaCl/H2O
(distilled water relationship) - Hypotonic (cell could explode)
-
Inside cell: -NaCl/H2O
(3% solution) - Hypertonic (cell shrinks)
-
Inside cell: NaCl/H20 equal
(85% solution) - Isotonic (no movement, concentrations equal)
- diffusion of a solvent through a membrane from a dilute solution into a more concentrated one
- osmosis
- the spreading of particles in a gas or solution with a movement toward a uniform distribution of particles
- diffusion
- the unassisted transport accross a plasma membrane of a lipid-soluable or very small particle
- simple diffusion
- the ability of a solution to change the shape or tone of cells by altering their internal water volume
-
tonicity
(tono=tension) - solutions with the same concentrations of nonpenatrating solutes as those found in cells (.9% saline, 5% glucose)
- isotonic
- solutions with a higher concentration of nonpenatrating solute that seen in the cell
- hypertonic
- solutions that are more dilute, contain lower concentrations of nonpenatrating solutes
- hypotonic
- passage of a solvent & dissolved substance through a membrane or filter
- filtration
- diffusion of a solute(s) through a semipermeable membrane
- dialysis
- Filtration is primarily dependent on a ______ gradient
- pressure
- subdivision of microscopic anatomy, which considers the cells of the body
- cytology
- hairs
-
stereocilia
(page 588) - tiny projections on the free surfaces of some epithelial cells; increase surface area for absorption "little shaggy hairs"
- mmicrovilla
- main carbohydrate stored in animal cells, a polysaccharide
- glycogen
- hormone formed by alpha cells of pancreatic islets, raises the glucose level of blood
- glucagon
- passive transport used by certain molecules (glucose, simple sugars) too large to pass through plasma membrane pores; involves movement through channels or movement with the aid of a membrane carrier
- facilitated diffusion
- how many DNA strands are present at the completion of replication?
- 2 (1 strand being composed of 2 sides and rungs)
- Bonding that occurs between 2 nucleotides
- hydrogen bonding
- chemical bond created by electron sharing between atoms (sugar & nitrogenous base in DNA strands)
- covalent bodning
- 1 of 2 major steps in the transfer of genetic code information involving the transfer of information from a DNA genes base sequence to the complimentary base sequence of a mRNA molecule
- transcription
- 1 of the 2 major steps in the transfer of genetic code information, in which the information carried by the mRNA is decoded & used to assemble polypeptides
- translation
- RNA stands for what
- ribonucleic acid
- nucleic acid that contains ribose & the bases A,G,C,U; carries out DNAs instructions for protein synthesis
- RNA
- a smaller single ring base (pyrimidine) found in RNA
- uracil
- RNA uses to copy
- DNA template
- control center of the cell
- contains genetic material
- dense spherical bodies in the cell nucleus involved with ribosomal subunit synthesis & storage
- nucleolus
- A T G C U (rung of the DNA ladder)
- nitrogenous bases
- Do transcription & translation occur in all cells? Explain.
- Yes. all cells need protein. Transcription - Translation - Proteins
- How do cells & organisms obtain biomolecules other than proteins? (Glycogen, starch, carbohydrates, lipids)
- Eat & bring from the outside
- Mitotic cell division in animal cells involves 2 processes: a_____ b_____
-
a. Mitosis
b. cytokinesis - an exact duplication & division of chromosomes of the parent cell into 2 offspring nuclei, each one identical to the parent nucleus
- mitosis
- a division of the cell cytoplasm
- cytokinesis
-
Mitosis & cytokinesis occur for several purposes.
a._____
b._____
c._____ -
a. GROWTH of an organism from a one-celled zygote to a multicellular adult
b. REPAIR of injured tissuees
c. REPLACE worn out cells - The _____ chromosomes in the nucleus contain all the information (genes) cells needed in order to function.
- chromosomes
- If the parent cell contains 24 chromosomes, each offspring cell will have ____ chromosomes.
- 24
- How many chromosomes are contained within the nucleus of a human somatic cell _____? human sex cell _____?
-
somatic = 46
sex = 23 - _____ begins during late anaphase & continues through & beyond telophase.
- cytokinesis
- the division of cytoplasm that occurs after the cell nucleus has divided.
- cytokinesis
- What process is responsible for the distribution of new organells constructed from raw material in the cell or divided from previous organelles (mitochondria), evenly between the two offspring cells?
- cytokinesis
- During _____ the nucleus has a grainy appearance; the grains are visible parts of the uncoiled chromosomes called _______
-
interphase
chromatin - During ______, the genetic material, now called ______, are tightly coiled & are visible as ribbons in the nucleus.
-
prophase
chromosomes - How many homologous pairs does a cell 2n=16 have?
- 8
- How many chromosomes does a diploid cell have where n=11?
- 2n= 2(11) = 22
- The chromosomes replicate/duplicate themselves during _____. The resulting chromatids remain attached to each other at the _____. Each chromosome is composed of 2 identical _____. The chromosome is also called a _____. The chromatids seperate in ____ and
-
mitosis
centriomeres
chromatids
dyad
anaphase - 1st mitotic phase, consisting of the chromosomes accompanied by migration of the 2 daughter centrioles toward the poles of the cell & nuclear membrane breakdown
- prophase
- 2nd stage, chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell, with their cetriomeres precisely aligned at the exact center of the spindle
- metaphase
- 2rd phase in whic a full set of daughter chromosomes move toward each pole of a cell
- anaphase
- 4th & final phase, begins when migration of chromosomes to the poles of the cells have been completed & ends with the formation of 2 daughter nuclei
- telophase
- the division of cytoplasm that occurs after the cell nucleus has divided
- cytokinesis
- when the center of the cell (the spindle equator) is drawn inward by the activity of a contractile ring made of actin filaments
- cleavage furrow
- thin strands of contractile protein actin, spindle fibers
- microfilaments
- small, buton like body that the chromatids of each chromosome are held together by
- centromere
- dyad is the same as a ______, which is 2 chromosomes
- homologous pair
- 1/2 the number of chromosomes of the parent cell
-
haploid
ie: human sex cells - 1n is for what type of cell
- haploid
- full number of chromosomes
-
diploid cell
human cell of muscle/tissue - 2x the haploid cell is a ____
- diploid
- process during which the chromosomes are re-distributed to 2 daughter nuclei; nuclear division
- mitosis
- nuclear division process that reduces the chromosomal number by 1/2
- reduction phase of Meiosis I
- 2nd phase of meiosis II is known as what
- equational divison
- The end result of Meiosis is the formation of ___
- 4 haploid cells
- Haploid cells have ____ the chromosomes of the parent cell
- 1/2
- chromosomes replicate but chromatids are not visible
- interphase
- chromatids seperate at the centromere & move toward opposite ends of the cell, attached to spindle fibers. (cytokinesis may have started here)
- anaphase
- chromosomes come together & uncoil. Nuclear membrane reappears. Spindle apparatus disappears. (cytokensis is occuring here)
- telophase
- centromeres attach to the short or kinetochore spindle fibers in the cetner of the cell
- metaphase
- cleavage furrow forms, separating cytoplasm.
- cytokinesis
- leading to DNA replication & cell division
- Meiosis I
- begins with products from Meiosis 1 (2 haploid daughter cells), undergoes mitosis - like nuclear division, product is 4 haploid daughter cells, genetically different from the original mother cell
- Meiosis II
- segregates homologous chromosomes
- reductional division
- segregates sister chromatids
- equational division
- structure within the DNA that carries hereditary factors; made up of DNA & protein
- chromain
- centromeres of dyad align on metaphase plaste
- metaphase II
- homologous chromosomes (tetrads) seperate into dyads
- anaphase I
- 2 nuclei form with unpaired chromosomes. nuclear membranes may or may not reform. cytokinesis usually occurs
- telophose
- may or may not occur. chromosomes may recondense, spindle apparatus reforms in a plane perpendicular to that in Meiosis I
- prophase II
- chromosomes condense & form tetrads. (synapsis) crossing over occurs, nuclear membrane disappears, spindle apparatus forms. longest phase
- prophase I
- dyads (sister chromatids) seperate
- anaphase II
- chromosomes come together, nuclear membrane reforms, spindle apparatus disappears, cytokinesis occurs
- telophase II
- chromosomes replicate (form dyads of chromotids)
- interphase
- tetrads are aligned on metaphase plate with centromeres attached to spindle fibers. centromeres repel each other
- metaphase I
- At the end of telophase II (human cell) there are ____ haploid cells. Each cell has _____ the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
-
23
1/2 - sperm cell meiosis
- spermatogenesis