Chapter 23 Terms
Terms
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- dual revolution
- the fusion of economic and political changes -exploited by the traditional elite
- traditional elite
- monarchs, noble landowners, bureaucrats
- Quadruple Alliance
- Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain -defeats France -March 1814: pledges to hold France in line for 20+ years -forced Napoleon to abdicate in April 1814 -restored Bourbon dynasty -fashioned peace settlement in Vienna -their meetings marked beginning of European 'congress system'
- Congress of Vienna
- -fashioned general peace settlement (interrupted by Hundred Days) -decided to: -curb French aggression with strong borders states -Low Countries (Belgium+Holland) united under enlarged Dutch monarchy -Prussia receives territory on France's eastern border
- Peace of Paris
- -signed with Louis XVIII on May 30, 1814 -France given 1792 boundaries -lost Italian, German, Low Country territory -no war reparations
- Balance of Power
- -international equilibrium of political and military forces -discourage aggression and prevent domination of Europe by single state -used to settle disputes btwn. Great Powers -favored by Metternich, Castlereagh, Talleyrand
- Great Powers
- Austria, Britain, Prussia, Russia, France
- The Second Peace of Paris
- -peace following Napoleon's permanent imprisonment on St. Helena -Louis XVIII restored to throne...again (France has lost some territory, pays 700 million francs, support large occupation of army for 5 yrs.)
- Holy Alliance
- Austria, Russia, Prussia -formed September 1815 -Ist proposed by Russia's Alexander I -set out to rule exclusively on the basis of Christian principles and to work together to maintain peace and justice on all occasions (Castlereagh refuses to sign) -also a symbol of repression of liberal+revolutionary movts. all over Europe
- principle of active intervention
- proclaimed by Alexander I at Troppau to maintain all autocratic regimes whenever they were threatened
- Congress of Troppau
- Called after kingdom of Two Sicilies adopts liberal constitutions -principle of active intervention proclaimed -rejected Alexander I's offer to send Cossacks agst. Spain
- Monroe Doctrine
- proclaimed in 1823 that European powers had to stay out of the New World's affairs
- German Confederation
- composed of 38 independent German states, dominated by Austria and Prussia
- Carlsbad Decrees
- -required 38 German states to squash subversive ideas in universities and censor newspapers -established committee of spies and informers to stamp out liberal+radical organizations
- Germans
- dominant people of Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs, accounted for 25% of population
- Magyars
- dominated kingdom of Hungary (though they do not account for majority of population)
- Czechs
- concentrated in Bohemia and Moravia
- Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs
- Germans, Magyars, Czechs, Italians, Poles, Ukrainians, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Ruthenians, Rumanians -strengthened by population+territory, weakened by clashing nationalities
- conservatism
- stressed tradition, hereditary monarchy, privileged aristocracy, official church
- liberalism
- demanded representative govt., equality before the law, individual freedoms -only recognized in dance and Great Britain -not as cutting-edge of late because -faced more radical competitors -opposed govt. intervention in social and economic affairs -in early 1800's became connected to narrow class interests -increasingly identified with middle class after 1815 -people are ultimate source of govt.
- classical liberalism
- called for unrestricted private enterprise+no govt. interference in economy (laissez faire)
- economic liberalism
- -first formulated by Adam Smith -free competition+invisible hand, equal opportunity-offered greater income for all doctrine embraced by business groups
- labor unions
- outlawed in nineteenth century because they restricted free competition and individual's "right to work"
- iron law of wages
- because of pressure of population growth, wages would always be just high enough to prevent starvation
- representative govt.
- favored by early nineteenth century liberals only because they wanted property qualifications attached to voting rights
- democrats and republicans
- more radical than liberals, wanted to go beyond liberalism detested power or monarchy, privileges of aristocracy, and wealth of upper middle class more willing to endorse violent upheaval to achieve goals people are ultimate source of govt.
- nationalism
- 1.) normally evolved from cultural unity 2.) sought to turn cultural unity into political reality so that territory of people coincided with state boundaries 3.) originated in French Rev.+Napoleonic Wars-used to gain support -influential in Austria, Russia, Ottoman Empire, Italian peninsula, German Confederation -every nation had right to exist in freedom -freedom of other nations wouldn't lessen their own freedom, but promote unity of all peoples -stressed the differences amongst people--"we" and "they" -often led to crusades
- cultural unity
- common language, history, territory
- Early socialists
- often French aware of the recent transformation of their society, but disturbed by selfish individualism of liberalism wanted further reorganization to establish cooperation and sense of community believed in economic planning intense desire to help poor rich and poor should be more equal economically-social organization is key to progress no private property emancipation of women
- economic planning
- govt. should organize economy, shouldn't depend on destructive competition
- "parasites"
- court, aristocracy, lawyers, churchmen should yield to "doers"
- "doers"
- scientists, engineers, industrialists would plan economy+guide it forward w/public works projects and investment banks
- urban workers
- touched by message of French utopian socialism violently opposed to laissez-fair laws favored collective action+govt. intervention in economy
- Marxian Socialism
- one class has always exploited others society split between bourgeoisie+proletariat proletariat would eventually overcome bourgeoisie
- theory of historical evolution
- each age characterized by dominant set of ideas; produces opposing ideas and eventually a new synthesis
- antithesis
- opposite of synthesis (nonbeing v. being)
- romanticism
- revolt against ideas of classicism and Enlightenment Rousseau-influential forerunner most influential in England+Germany, 1790s gained strength until 1840s characterized by belief in emotional exuberance, unrestrained imagination, spontaneity lives of emotional intensity individualists saw growth of modern industry as attack on nature+man fond of writing about history
- classicism
- belief that ancient Greeks+Romans had discovered eternally valid aesthetic rules+playwrights and painters should always follow them
- the Polish Question
- -Alexander I wishes to restore kingdom of Poland -Prussia agrees to give up Polish territories in exchange for Saxony -Metternich is horrified -turns to Talleyrand -Jan.3, 1815: Great Britain, Austria, France sign secret agreement against Russia+Prussia -Russia+Prussia compromise: -Russia receives small Polish kingdom, Prussia receives 2/5s of Saxony
- classical economists
- -David Ricardo+Karl Marx -profits were wages stolen from workers
- Sturm und Drang
- "Storm and Stress" early German romantics of 1770's+1780s
- National Liberation in Greece
- -Since 1400s, Greeks dominated by Ottoman Turks -survived due to language+Greek Orthodox religion -rising national movement led to secret societies+revolt in 1821 led by Alexander Ypsilanti -Metternich+Great powers don't approve, support Ottomans -educated Americans+Europeans, Russians support Greeks -Turks slaughter Greeks at Chios, but Greeks battle on, hoping for European support -1827: Great Britain, France, Russia direct Turkey to accept armistice -Turks refuse, their navy is crushed by powers at Navarino -Russians declare war of expansion against Turks, Russian protectorate established over Rumania -Great Britain, France, Russia declare Greece independent in 1830, install German prince as king in 1832
- massacre at Chios
- Turks slaughter one hundred thousand Greeks
- defeat at Navarino
- Great Britain, France, Russia crush Turkish navy
- Tory party
- -controlled by landed aristocracy -feared radicals
- Revision of the Corn Laws
- -prohibited importation of foreign grain unless home price was more than 80 shillings per quarter-ton -selfishly passed by aristocracy to keep rent rolls high -led to protests by urban laborers
- Corn Laws
- -regulated foreign grain trade -unnecessary during war w/France b/cse Britain was unable to import grain from eastern Europe
- Suspension of Habeas Corpus
- -1817, by Tory govt. -In response to protests -also suspended right to peaceful assembly
- Six Acts
- -passed in 1819 by Parliament -controlled heavily taxed press, eliminated mass meetings
- Battle of Peterloo
- -protest in response to Six Acts, savagely broken up by armed cavalry
- desires of commercial groups
- place for new wealth among landed wealth of aristocracy reform of town govt., organization of police force, rights for Catholics+dissenters, reform of Poor Laws -Tories respond to demands in 1820 w/heavy tariff on grain rather than prohibition on imports
- Poor Laws
- provided aid to low-paid workers
- Whig Party
- led by aristocrats, though more responsive to commercial+manufacturing interests
- Reform Bill of 1832
- -tentatively proposed by Whigs in 1830, but shot down by House of Lords -House of Lords gave in two years later when king threatened to replace them -House of Commons emerged as all-important legislative body -new industrial areas of country gained representation in Commons -electoral districts influenced by aristocracy eliminated -number of voters doubles, 12% have right to vote-including comfortable middle class+substantial farmers
- Chartist movement
- -inspired by economic distress of working class, therefore wanted universal male suffrage -rule by common people is key to just society -3 giant petitions for voting rights signed in 1839, 1842, 1848 -all are rejected by Parliament
- Anti-Corn Law League
- -founded in Manchester in 1839 -popular crusade against Corn laws+aristocracy
- Repeal of Corn Laws
- -after 1845 Irish potato famine+high food prices, by Robert Peel -allows fee imports of grain, England escapes famine
- Ten Hours Act of 1847
- -limited workday for women+children to 10 hours
- Irish
- ruled as conquered people, mostly Catholics who rented land from Church of England minority (except for Presbyterian people of Ulster), depended on potato crop
- Great Famine
- -1846, 1848, 1851:potato crops fail -high food prices, suffering, social upheaval, starvation, fever epidemics -little support by British govt. -1 million emigrants flee btwn. 1845-1851 to US+Great Britain
- Constitutional Charter of 1814
- -a "gift" of Louis XVIII to people (really in response to political pressures) -liberal constitution protecting economic+social gains of middle class+peasantry -intellectual+artistic freedom, real parliament -not democratic, only 100,000 of 3 mil vote for deputies (who made laws)
- "notable people"
- -those who could vote -wealthy businessmen, war profiteers, successful professionals, ex-revolutionaries, landowners from old aristocracy+middle class, Bourbons, Bonapartists
- old aristocracy
- minority w/in voting population
- Three Glorious Days
- -caused by repudiation of Constitutional Charter in July 1830 -wealthy middle class loses voting rights, press censored -insurrection in capital by printers, artisans, small traders -govt. collapses, Charles X flees, replaced by Louis Philippe -accepts Constitutional Charter of 1814, French Rev. flag -however, wealthy notable elite only gains power
- "Prerevolutionary" outbreaks
- -small revolts occurring in Europe before 1848 -Polish revolt in 1846 (fail) -civil war in Switzerland in 1847 -Armed uprising in Naples in Jan. 1848
- "bourgeois monarchy"
- -Louis Philippe's monarchy -characterized by inaction, lack of social legislation+political corruption
- Revolt against the bourgeois monarchy
- -Feb. 22,1848: Barricades rise -Feb. 24: Louis Philippe abdicates in favor of grandson -Provisional republic proclaimed
- provisional republic
- -headed by 10-man executive committee
- France's Second Republic
- -universal male suffrage, freeing of all slaves in French colonies, abolition of death penalty, establishment of 10-hr. Paris workday
- revolutionary coalition in Paris
- -moderate, liberal republican middle class -universal male suffrage is far enough -radical republicans -committed to socialism -there are also individuals such as Alphonse Lamartine+Alexandre Ledru-Rollin who wished to avoid conflict
- national workshops
- -established by moderate republicans, headed by Louis Blanc+Albert -provided little relief, but still attracted 200,000 poor -dissolved on June 22 -workers can either join army or go to workshops in provinces
- Constituent Assembly
- -consisted of 500 moderate republicans (including Alexis e Tocqueville), 300 monarchists, 100 radical socialists -invaded on May 15 by workers in hopes of proclaiming new revolutionary state (squashed by National Guard) -after June Days, completes constitution w/strong executive
- "June Days"
- -class war following the dissolving of workshops -10,000 people killed/injured, put down by republican army under General Louis Cavaignac
- revolution in the Austrian Empire
- -1848: Hungarians demand national autonomy, full civil liberties, universal suffrage -Mar. 13: Viennese students+workers take to streets, peasant disorders break out -Ferdinand I promises reform+liberal constitution, Metternich flees
- coalition of March
- -March 20: monarchy abolishes serfdom -peasants were ecstatic, then lost interest -govt. has ally in peasants (also make up most of army) -weakened by conflicting national aspirations -while Hungarians established near-democratic constitution w/voting rights, civil liberties, no feudal obligations, they also wanted a unified, centralized Hungarian nation -This freaked out minority groups, whose fears were then exploited by Habsburg monarchy in Vienna
- bombarding of Prague
- -working-class revolt crushed by Prince Alfred Windischgratz -other Austrian officials lead minority nationalities of Hungary against revolutionary govt. -July 1848: Austrian army reconquers Austria's possession in northern Italy -Oct. 1848: army attacks Viennese radicals, retakes city
- Frankfurt National Assembly
- -self-appointed committee of liberals from various German states- mostly middle class -called for formation of national constituent assembly to begin writing federal constitution for unified German state -finishes liberal constitution, elects Frederick William of Prussia emperor of new German state in March 1849 -however, they are disbanded by Frederick William
- Schleswig-Holstein dispute
- -soon became entangled in battle over Schleswig+Holstein w/Denmark -mainly inhabited by Germans, ruled by Denmark, Holstein is part of German confederation -provinces were revolting b/cse Frederick VII of Denmark was trying to integrate provinces -Prussia begins war w/Denmark
- Tentative German National State Plans
- Frankfurt National Assembly has plans for new German state -also wanted to bring German-speaking Austrian provinces into German state -Austria said no Frederick William I is elected emperor of new German State, but reasserts royal authority -still wants to be emperor+tries to get small monarchs of Germany to elect him, Austria+Russia force Prussia to renounce all unifications schemes in 1850
- Napoleonic Ideals
- (illustrated in pamphlets Napoleonic Ideals+The Elimination of Poverty) -believed govt. should represent people+try to help them economically -strong, authoritarian leader needed, linked to people by universal male suffrage
- President Louis Napoleon's Actions
- -Signed bill to increase role of Catholic church in primary+secondary education -Signed law to deprive poor of voting rights -Did these things so that National Assembly would pay his personal debts+so that the constitution would allow him to run again
- Louis Napoleon seizes power
- -Dec. 2,1851: dismisses Assembly, seizes power in coup d'etat -protests crushed by army -restores universal male suffrage -92% vote to give him 10 yr. term -97% make him hereditary emperor in plebiscite
- Emperor Louis Napoleon's Actions:Economic
- -Greatest success -encouraged massive banks+railroads, public works, regulated pawnshops+supported credit unions, better housing, granted workers right to strike in 1860s
- electoral system
- -Used in Assembly elections -members elected by universal male suffrage every 6 yrs. -notables enticed to stand as govt. candidates -worked brilliantly at first, gradually disintegrated
- National Assembly
- -not abolished by Napoleon -electoral system used -1860s: gains more power -gives way in 1870 to parliamentary regime w/hereditary emperor as chief of state
- Italy before 1860
- -reorganized at Congress of Vienna -Lombardy+Venetia controlled by Austria -Sardinia+Piedmont ruled by Italian monarch -Tuscany+few small states share north-central Italy -Naples+Sicily ruled by Bourbons
- peace at Villafranca
- -Napoleon III gets cold feet, compromises w/Austrians in July 1859 -Sardinia only receives Lombardy -Italian leaders ignore compromise peace, call for fusion w/ Sardinia -people of central Italy vote to join Sardinia
- Red Shirts
- Garibaldi's 1,000 guerrilla followers somehow outwits 20,000 royal army+takes Palmero, marches toward Naples
- Kingdom of Italy
- -neither radical nor democratic -parliamentary monarchy under Victor Emmanuel, but in accordance w/liberal Sardinian constitution of 1848, few could vote -large gap btwn. propertied classes+peasants -social+cultural gap btwn. North+South
- Zollverein
- German customs union -developed gradually under Prussia in 1818, officially established in 1834 -stimulated trade+increased revenues of member states -excluded Austria -reduced tariff duties prevented Austria's protected industry from joining, Austria tries to destroy it by inducing south German states to leave
- Austro-Prussian War
- -Prussia joins w/Austria against Denmark in 1848 when it tries to seize Schleswig+Holstein -agree to jointly rule conquered provinces -made France+Russia look the other way, then provoked Austria -after 7 weeks, Austria is crushed by technologically advanced Prussia -Prussia gives Austria generous peace terms -no reparations paid, only loses Venice to Italy -German confederation dissolved, Austria withdraws from German affairs -states North of German confederation grouped in North German Confederation led by Prussia, south Catholic states form alliances w/Prussia
- North German Confederation Constitution
- -states keep local govt., but Prussian king is president of confederation -two houses make laws -upper houses appointed by states, lower house appointed by universal male suffrage
- indemnity bill
- -Bismarck asks parliament to approve govt.'s spending btwn. 1862-1866 -liberals are won over
- The Franco-Prussian War
- -Bismarck brings 4 south German states into Zollverein in 1867, but they are reluctant to go further -realizes patriotic war w/France will change state's minds -war sparked over whether relative of William I would become king of Spain -South German states quickly support Bismarck -defeat Louis Napoleon at Sedan on Sept. 1, 1870 -3 days later, Paris proclaims another French Republic, continue fighting -5 months later, they surrender -William I proclaimed emperor of Germany