Languages of the World
Terms
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- Language is...
- an innate universal capacity
- A language is...
- a learned, local, implementations of that innate universal capacity.
- Phonetics
- production and perception of language sounds
- phonology
- organization and patterning of language sounds
- Morphology
- the structure and formation of words
- syntax
- the structure and formation of phrases and sentences
- semantics
- the processes of encoding and decoding meaning in words and phrases
- pragmatics
- higher level language structures
- 1 (reference image)
- Bilabial
- 2 (reference image)
- labiodental
- 3 (reference image)
- dental
- 4 (reference image)
- Aleveolar
- 5 (reference image)
- Alveopalatal
- 6 (reference image)
- Palatal
- 7 (reference image)
- velar
- 8 (reference image)
- uvular
- 9 (reference image)
- Glottal
- Phones
- speech sound
- Phoneme
- The smallest phonetic unit in a language that is capable of conveying a distinction in meaning, as the m of mat and the b of bat in English.
- Allophone
- A predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme. For example, the aspirated t of top, the unaspirated t of stop,
- Bound Morpheme
- A morpheme that always attaches to other morphemes, never existing as a word itself
- Free Morpheme
- Morphemes that can stand alone as words
- Inflectional morphemes
- Morphemes that serve a purely grammatical function, neve creating a new word but only a different form of the same word
- Derivational morpheme
- Morphemes that change the meaning or lexical category of the words to which they attach
- Affixes
- bound morphemes that change the meaning or syntactic function of the words to which they attach. Prefixes, infixes, and suffixes are the three types of affixes.
- Prefixes
- affixes that attach to the beginning of a stem
- suffixes
- affixes attached to the end of a stem
- infixes
- a type of bound morpheme that is inserted into the root
- Isolating (Analytic) languages
- Type of language in which words consist mainly of one morpheme and sentences are composed of sequences of these free morphemes. Grammatical relationships are often indicated by word order. Ex: Chinese and Viatnamese
- Fusional (Inflecting) languages
- A type of language in which the relationships between the words in a sentence are indicated by bound morphemes that are difficult to separate from the stem. In fusional languages it is difficult to tell where one morpheme ends and the next begins. Ex: Spanish
- Agglutinating (Agglutinantive) languages
- A type of language in which the relationships between words in a sentence are indicated primarily by bound morphemes. Ex: Hungarian, Swahili
- Polysynthetic (incorporating) languages
- a type of language that attaches several affixes to a stem to indicate grammatical relationships
- Nominative case
- subject or unmarked
- genitive case
- possession
- accusative case
- direct object
- partitive
- object affected only partially by verb
- essive
- time or place "at which" something happened
- addessive
- to be "at" or in the possession of
- inessive
- "inside of" usually in an abstract sense
- allative
- "direction towards which"
- ablative
- "away from"
- elative
- "motion from inside of something"
- illative
- motion to the inside of
- comitative
- in the company of
- translative
- turns into
- instrumental
- means bye which accomplished
- prolative
- by way of
- abessive
- absence of an object
- pidgins
- Contact languages, usually through trade, not a native language,
- Creole
- a creole language is a pidgin that has become a native language, ex: Gullah
- Panini
- 500 BCE, outlined phonology and grammar of the Sanskrit language
- Sir William Jones
- British scholar and colonial administrator. Proposed the Indo-European language family...1786
- Jacob Grimm
- Grimm's law, rules of sound change that could explain systematic relationship of sounds, published in 1822
- Joseph Greenberg
- Classification of african languages - 1960s; classification of indo-pacific languages - 1970s; Amerindian languages - 1980s
- Afro-Asiatic (where)
- Northern Africa
- Altaic
- Turkey, Central Asia, China, Siberia
- Amerind
- Much of North America, all of central and south america
- Australian
- Australia (except tasmania)
- austro-asiatic
- india, myanmar, cambodia, vietnam
- Austronesian
- Madagascar, taiwan, malaysia, indonesia, phillipines, polynesia, new zealand
- causcasian families (north and south)
- caucasus region, between the black sea and the caspian sea
- chukotko-kamchatkan
- far eastern siberia
- dravidian
- southern india
- eskimo-aleut
- alaska, northern canada, greenland
- hmong-mien
- china and vietnam
- indo-european
- europe, iran, afghanistan, northern india, australia, new zealand, the americas
- indo-pacific
- papua new guinea, nearby pacific islands, tasmania
- khoisan
- southern cone of africa
- na-dene
- western canada, alaska, nw US, arizona, new mexico
- niger-kordofanian
- most of sub-saharan africa
- nilo-saharan
- saharan africa and northern parts of sub-saharan africa
- sino-tibetan
- china, tibet, myanmar (burma), nepal, northern india
- tai-kadai
- southeast asia, especially thailand, laos, and malaysian peninsula
- uralic
- scandinavia, northern russia, hungary
- Breton
- Celtic->Indo-European
- Cornish (extinct)
- Celtic->indo-european
- Welsh
- Celtic->indo-european
- irish gaelic
- Celtic->indo-european
- Scots gaelic
- Celtic->indo-european
- manx (extinct)
- Celtic->indo-european
- Latin (extinct)
- Italic->indo-european
- italian
- Italic->indo-european
- portuguese
- Italic->indo-european
- Spanish
- Italic->indo-european
- Catalan
- Italic->indo-european
- French
- Italic->indo-european
- Provencal
- Italic->indo-european
- Romanian
- Italic->indo-european
- Rhaeto-Romance
- Italic->indo-european
- Greek
- Greek->Indo-European
- Icelandic
- Germanic-> indo-european
- faroese
- Germanic-> indo-european
- swedish
- Germanic-> indo-european
- danish
- Germanic-> indo-european
- norwegian
- Germanic-> indo-european
- english
- Germanic-> indo-european
- frisian
- Germanic-> indo-european
- dutch
- Germanic-> indo-european
- afrikaans
- Germanic-> indo-european
- german
- Germanic-> indo-european
- yiddish
- Germanic-> indo-european
- Lithuanian
- Baltic->indo-european
- latvian
- baltic->indo-european
- Russian
- Slavic->indo-european
- belarusian
- Slavic->indo-european
- ukrainian
- Slavic->indo-european
- czech
- Slavic->indo-european
- slovak
- Slavic->indo-european
- polish
- Slavic->indo-european
- sorbian
- Slavic->indo-european
- slovenian
- Slavic->indo-european
- serbo-croatian
- Slavic->indo-european
- bosnian
- Slavic->indo-european
- bulgarian
- Slavic->indo-european
- macedonian
- Slavic->indo-european
- armenian
- armenian->indo-european
- albanian
- albanian->indo-european
- tocharian
- tocharian->indo-european
- hittite
- anatolian->indo-european
- Avestan (extinct)
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- pashto
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- farsi
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- tajiki
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- baluchi
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- kurdish
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- Sanskrit
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- Hindi
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- Urdu
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- marathi
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- sinhalese
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- punjabi
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- kashmiri
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- nepali
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- gujarati
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- romany
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- assamese
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- bengali
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- bihari
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- oriya
- Indo-iranian->indo-european
- Finnish
- Fino-Ugric->Uralic
- Estonian
- Fino-Ugric->uralic
- Hungarian
- fino-ugric->uralic
- Saami
- Sami->uralic
- Uyghur
- Turkic->Altaic
- Uzbek
- Turkic->Altaic
- Azerbaijani
- Turkic->Altaic
- Turkish
- Turkic->Altaic
- Turkmen
- Turkic->Altaic
- Kazakh
- Turkic->Altaic
- Kirghiz
- Turkic->Altaic
- Buriat
- Mongolian->Altaic
- Mongolian
- Mongolian->Altaic
- Manchu
- Tungusic->Altaic
- Chechen
- East Caucasian -> North Caucasian
- Abkhaz
- West Caucasian-> North Caucasian
- Ubykh
- West Caucasian ->North Caucasian
- Georgian
- South Caucasian Family
- Koryak
- Chukitko-Kamchatkan Family
- Brahui
- Northern->Dravidian Family
- Gondi
- South-central ->Dravidian Family
- Telugu
- South-Central->Dravidian Family
- Kannada
- Souther->Dravidian Family
- Malayalam
- Southern->Dravidian Family
- Tamil
- Southern->Dravidian Family
- Chinese, Hakka
- Chinese->Sino-Tibetan
- Chinese, Mandarin
- Chinese->Sino-Tibetan
- Chinese, Min
- Chinese->Sino-Tibetan
- Tibetan, Central
- Tibetic-Sino-Tibetan
- Sikkimese
- Tibetic->Sino-Tibetan
- Sherpa
- Tibetic->Sino-Tibetan
- Burmese
- Burmish->Sino-Tibetan
- Hadza
- Hatsa->Khoisan
- !Kung
- South Africa->Khoisan
- !Xoo
- South Africa->Khoisan
- heikom
- South Africa->Khoisan
- Khoe
- South Africa->Khoisan
- Nama
- South Africa->Khoisan
- Zulu
- Bantoid->Niger-Kordofanian
- Xhosa
- Bantoid->Niger-Kordofanian
- Swahili
- Bantoid->Niger-Kordofanian
- Yoruba
- Atlantic-Congo->Niger-Kordofanian
- Vai
- Mande->Niger-Kordofanian
- Hebrew
- Semitic->Afro-Asiatic
- Mon
- Mon-Khmer->Austro-Asiatic
- Khmer
- Mon-Khmer->Austro-asiatic
- Vietnamese
- Mon-Khmer->austro-asiatic
- Thai
- Tai-Kadai Family
- Lao
- Tai-Kadai Family
- Javanese
- Malayo-Polynesian->Austronesian Family
- Malay
- Malayo-Polynesian->Austronesian Family
- Sundanese
- Malayo-Polynesian->Austronesian Family
- Tagalog
- Malayo-Polynesian->Austronesian Family
- Cebuano
- Malayo-Polynesian->Austronesian Family
- Malagasy
- Malayo-Polynesian->Austronesian Family
- Ilokano
- Malayo-Polynesian->Austronesian Family
- Hawaiian
- Polynesian->austronesian
- tahitian
- Polynesian->austronesian
- maori
- Polynesian->austronesian
- rapa nui
- Polynesian->austronesian
- samoan
- Polynesian->austronesian
- Aleut
- Aleut->Eskimo-Aleut
- Inuktitut
- Eskimo->Eskimo-Aleut
- Yupik
- Eskimo->Eskimo-Aleut
- Apache
- Athabaskan->Na-dene
- Navajo
- Athabaskan->na-dene
- chipewa
- Athabaskan->na-dene
- Cheyenne
- Algonquian->amerind
- cree
- Algonquian->amerind
- Crow
- siouan->amerind
- dakota
- siouan->amerind
- hidatsa
- siouan->amerind
- mohawk
- iroquoian->amerind
- onondaga
- iroquoian->amerind
- cherokee
- iroquoian->amerind
- Choctaw
- Muskogean->amerind
- Hopi
- Uto-Aztecan->amerind
- Zapotec
- Oto-manguean
- Quechua
- Andean->amerind
- ch'orti'
- mayan->amerind
- quiche
- mayan->amerind