Biology Intensive
Study Guide for Biology Intensive Midterm Friday, December 14, 2007 and Biology Intensive Final Tuesday, May 27, 2008
Waynflete School Portland, ME
http://www.m-w.com/dictionary
http://cellsalive.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
http://ghs.gresham.k12.or.us/science/ps/sci/soph/genetics/notes/sexlinked.htm
http://www.sparknotes.com/biology/cellreproduction/intro/section2.rhtml
http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-dictionary/
Waynflete School Portland, ME
http://www.m-w.com/dictionary
http://cellsalive.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
http://ghs.gresham.k12.or.us/science/ps/sci/soph/genetics/notes/sexlinked.htm
http://www.sparknotes.com/biology/cellreproduction/intro/section2.rhtml
http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-dictionary/
Terms
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copy deck
- Carbs Energy Storage (animals)
- starch/glycogen
- Synapsis
- the association of homologous chromosomes that is characteristic of the first meiotic prophase
- Osmosis
- diffusion of water
- Mortality
- death rate
- Passive Transport
- diffusion
- Centromeres
- the point or region on a chromosome to which the spindle attaches during mitosis and meiosis
- # of Bonds for Carbon (C)
- 4
- Title of an experiment
- The Effect of the Independent Variable on the Dependent Variable
- Meiosis: Telophase II
- Next, during telophase II, cleavage furrow form, beginning cytokinesis (cell division).
- True (Pure) Breeding
- when two organisms with a particular heritable phenotype produce only offspring with that (same) phenotype
- Phenotype
- the observable properties of an organism that are produced by the interaction of the genotype and the environment
- Macromolecule: Nucleic Acids
- FUNCTION: contain information to make enzymes ELEMENTS: C,H,O,N,P
- neutrons [n*]
- atomic mass - atomic number (in nucleus)
- Loci (plural), Locus (singular)
- the position in a chromosome of a particular gene or allele
- Vestigial Structures
- vestigiality describes homologous characters of organisms which have lost all or most of their original function in a species through evolution
- Diffusion
- passive transport - movement of particles from a high concentration to a low concentration
- Characteristics of Life
- moves by itself, needs water/nutrients to live, grows, needs specific environment to survive, interaction between organism and environment, produces energy, responds to stimuli, reproduces, homeostasis, organization (cells)
- Karyotypes
- the chromosomal characteristics of a cell or the chromosomes themselves or a representation of them
- Habitat
- the place or environment where a plant or animal naturally or normally lives and grows
- Homozygous
- having the two genes at corresponding loci on homologous chromosomes identical for one or more loci
- Ribose Nucleic Acid(s)
- 5) Uracil
- Chromosomes
- any of the rod-shaped or threadlike DNA-containing structures of cellular organisms that are located in the nucleus of eukaryotes, are usually ring-shaped in prokaryotes (as bacteria), and contain all or most of the genes of the organism
- Niche
- the ecological role of an organism in a community especially in regard to food consumption, no two species can have the same niche because of competition
- Dispersal
- process of re-distributing, limiting factors, how they got there
- Chromatin
- replicated DNA and its associated proteins
- Animal Cells
- 1) lacks cell wall 2) lacks chloroplasts 3) lacks large central vacuole
- Experimental Group
- Group testing something in an experiment besides the controls
- Volume
- the volume of any solid, liquid, or gas is how much three-dimensional space it occupies, and it's often quantified numerically
- Herbivore
- vegetarian, primary consumer, an individual that only eat/consumes producers
- Golgi Apparatus
- lipid membrane-bound, packages and modifies proteins
- Incomplete Dominance
- heterozygote shows a blend of dominant/recessive phenotype
- % of Population Change
- population(new) - population(original) / population(original) x 100
- Community
- an interacting population of various kinds of individuals (as species) in a common location
- Meiosis: Telophase I
- Lastly, in telophase I, cleavage furrow form, beginning the process of cytokinesis (cell division), and the resulting daughter cells are haploid (1N).
- Molecules
- the smallest particle of a substance that retains all the properties of the substance and is composed of one or more atoms
- Concentration
- amount of x / unit area of volume
- Natural Variation
- every individual in a population is unique; while all life is related, each individual has its own unique genetic code (recombination)
- Hypertonic Solution
- higher concentration of something other than water (solute)
- Natural Selection
- 1) members of a population have heritable variations 2) in a population, more individuals are produced each generation than can survive or reproduce 3) some individuals have adaptive characteristics that enable them to survive and reproduce better than other individuals 4) an increasing proportion of individuals in succeeding generations have the adaptive characteristics, due to genetic inheritance of traits 5) the result of natural selection is a population adapted to its local environment
- Mitosis: Telophase
- In telophase, the detached spindle fibers disappear, and, after separating, the sister chromatids line up at opposite ends of the cell.
- Producers
- an autotrophic organism (as a green plant) viewed as a source of biomass that can be consumed by other organisms
- Ionic Compound
- non metal + metal
- Enzymes
- Protein, Polypeptide 1) speeds up chemical reactions 2) doesn't get used up in chemical reactions 3) very specific to substrates
- Meiosis: Metaphase I
- Next, in metaphase I, spindle fibers attach to each dyad at the kinetochore; tension from spindle fibers aligns the tetrads at the cell's equator.
- Recessive
- producing little or no phenotypic effect when occurring in heterozygous condition with a contrasting allele and expressed only when the determining gene is in the homozygous condition
- Meiosis: Metaphase II
- Next, during metaphase II, the tension from the spindle fibers aligns the chromosomes at the metaphase plate.
- Chromatid
- two chromosomes (i.e. two identical chromosomes are called sister chromatids)
- Dihybrid Crosses
- a cross expressing two genes
- Monomer
- a chemical compound
- Heterozygous
- having the two alleles at corresponding loci on homologous chromosomes different for one or more loci
- Centrioles
- microtubules - animal cell reproduction
- Metallic Bond
- metal + metal
- Volvox
- Motile Microorganism - multi-cellular colony with concentrated colonies (daughter colonies), sphere, unicellular algae (photosynthesis)
- Decomposers
- any of various organisms (as many bacteria and fungi) that return constituents of organic substances to ecological cycles by feeding on and breaking down dead protoplasm
- Discrete Data
- unrelated data (brands, etc.), bar or column graph
- Cell Cycle
- Interphase usually lasts 12 to 24 hours in mammalian tissue; during this time period, the cell synthesizes RNA (uracil), produces protein, and grows in size. It is divided into 4 steps: Gap 0 (G0), Gap 1 (G1), Synthesis (S phase), and Gap 2 (G2). G0 is when a cell leaves the cycle and stops dividing, this is a temporary resting period. In G1, a cell cycle control mechanism is activated (which ensures preparation for DNA synthesis), cells increase in size, cells produce RNA, and cells synthesize protein. During S phase, DNA replication occurs to produce two similar daughter cells. G2 is when cells continue growth and the production of new proteins. In Mitosis (M phase), the cell divides to two similar daughter cells.
- Carrying Capacity
- the maximum population that an area can support
- pH
- measure of acidity and alkalinity of a solution on a scale of 1 - 14
- Control
- standard against which your experiment is gaged
- Punnett Squares
- an n × n square used in genetics to calculate the frequencies of the different genotypes and phenotypes among the offspring of a cross
- Atoms
- basic building blocks of all matter
- H2O2 + Enzyme
- H2O2 = poison - catalase (lock and key model) speeds up the natural breaking down of H2O2 into H2O and O2
- Cellular Respiration
- C6H12O6 + O2 - CO2 + H20 + ATP (opposite of photosynthesis)
- Food Chain
- an arrangement of the organisms of an ecological community according to the order of predation in which each uses the next usually lower member as a food source
- Meiosis: Prophase I
- During prophase I, dyad pairs align to create "tetrads," non-sister chromatids connect and trade sections at a "chiasma," a process called crossing over.
- Cell Membrane
- (lipids) protection and filter
- Concentration Gradient
- difference in concentration
- Tetrad
- a group or arrangement of four — as a: a group of four cells produced by the successive divisions of a mother cell b: a group of four synapsed chromatids that become visibly evident in the pachytene stage of meiotic prophase
- Meiosis: Meiosis II
- Lastly, gamete (1N) nuclear envelopes form and chromosomes disperse as chromatin. Meiosis has produced four daughter cells, each with (1N) chromosomes and (1N) DNA, later male and female (1N) gametes, sex cells, will join to create a 2N zygote (somatic cell).
- Covalent Bond
- non metal + non metal
- Autosomes
- a chromosome other than a sex chromosome
- Organic Molecule
- macromolecule (carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) - contains carbons and relates to living organisms
- Sex-Linked Traits
- If a gene is found only on the X chromosome and not the Y chromosome, it is said to be a sex-linked trait. Because the gene controlling the trait is located on the sex chromosome, sex linkage is linked to the gender of the individual. Usually such genes are found on the X chromosome. The Y chromosome is thus missing such genes (See Diagram above.). The result is that females will have two copies of the sex-linked gene while males will only have one copy of this gene. If the gene is recessive, then males only need one such recessive gene to have a sex-linked trait rather than the customary two recessive genes for traits that are not sex-linked. This is why males exhibit some traits more frequently than females.
- Cell Size
- Cells are so small because they are constantly interacting with their environment and surrounding atmosphere, and each cell is so specialized that they need to each be in their own specific environment.
- Microorganisms
- an organism (as a bacterium or protozoan) of microscopic or ultramicroscopic size
- Independent Assortment
- gametes (sex cells) form
- Ribosomes
- assemble proteins from amino acids
- Gamete
- sex cell
- Element
- type of atom, pure substance
- Scavenger
- an organism that feeds on the dead bodies of other organisms
- Cytoskeleton
- only in animal cells - microtubules (protein tubes) give cell its shape
- Predator-Prey
- PREDATOR: an individual that preys on another organism PREY: the victim of a predator
- Meiosis: Anaphase II
- In anaphase II, chromatids separate and start moving towards the poles.
- Subatomic Particle
- is an elementary or composite particle smaller than an atom
- Omnivore
- an individual that feeds on both producer and consumers; vegetable and animal substances
- Unicellular Protists (organisms)
- Eukaryotic Microorganisms
- Mitochondria
- converts glucose to ATP (cellular respiration)
- Size of Field of View
- field of view is determined by the focal length of the lens and by the size of the image
- Monohybrid Crosses
- a cross expressing only one gene
- basic pH
- 7.1 - 14
- Protein Amino Acids
- Glycine and Methionine
- Fossil Evidence
- study of fossils across geological time, how they were formed, and the evolutionary relationships between taxa (phylogeny) are some of the most important functions of the science of paleontology
- Distribution
- snapshot of where organisms are, where they are
- Meiosis: Meiosis I
- In meiosis I, first the oogonium (spermatogonium) enters meiosis with diploid (2N) chromosomes, but they enter with tetraploid (4N) DNA.
- Population Density, Abundance
- # individuals/area
- Geographic Barrier
- a limiting factor; (i.e. body of water, mountains, etc.)
- Abiotic Factor
- Living Organism
- Population Dynamics
- how populations change over time
- Immigration
- the process of animals coming into/moving to an area
- Complete Dominance
- 1 copy of dominant gene = dominant pheotype
- Hypotonic Solution
- higher concentration water (solvent)
- Population Dynamics: Factors
- natality, mortality, immigration, emigration
- Non-Disjunction
- failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate subsequent to metaphase in meiosis or mitosis so that one daughter cell has both and the other neither of the chromosomes
- Ecology
- Interrelationship of organisms and their environment
- Compound Microscope
- eye piece lens, body, clips, knobs (coarse focus), knobs (fine focus), on/off switch, base, light source, diaphram, stage, slides, and main lens
- Alleles
- any of the alternative forms of a gene that may occur at a given locus
- Food Web
- the totality of interacting food chains in an ecological community
- Polymer
- a chemical compound or mixture of compounds and consisting essentially of repeating structural units
- Plant Cells
- 1) have cell wall 2) have chlorophyll/chloroplasts 3) large central vacuole
- Chromosomes
- nucleic acids, makes proteins from genetic information
- Mitosis: Anaphase
- During anaphase, the spindle fibers shorten, the kinetochores separate, and the chromatids or daughter chromosomes pull apart and begin moving toward the cell's poles (opposite ends).
- Catalase - basic, acidic, or neutral?
- basic
- Compound
- bond between 2 or more elements
- Testable Question
- Question that can be answered with data from an experiment
- Positive Control
- normal conditions, closest to natural atmosphere
- Species
- a group of closely related organisms that share common characteristics and reproduce naturally in the wild
- Vacuoles
- storage (water, waste, nutrients)
- Amoeba
- Motile Microorganism - (heterotrophic) - ectoplasm, endoplasm, pseudopodium (false feet), contractile vacuole (regulates homeostasis & controls water amount), food vacuole (food/nutrient storage), digestive vacuole (stores enzymes)
- Lysosomes
- cleaning system, breaks down old organelles
- Source of Error
- when there are not enough trials to accurately support or disprove hypothesis
- Brightness
- brightness is determined by the illumination of the light source on the microscope
- Short/Long Arm (Chromosomes)
- the two prominent segments of a chromosome (short arm = p, long arm = q), the arms of a given chromosome join at its centromere
- Crenate
- when a cell shrinks due to water loss
- Meiosis: Prophase II
- During meiosis II, in prophase II, spindle formation begins, and centrosomes start moving towards the poles, or opposite sides of the cell.
- electrons [e-]
- atomic number (outside nucleus)
- Dehydration Synthesis
- O - O + O
- Biotic Factor
- Non-Living
- Cell Division
- the process by which cells multiply involving both nuclear and cytoplasmic division — compare meiosis, mitosis
- Hydrolosis
- O + O - O
- Biosphere
- living organisms together with their environment
- Dynamic Equilibrium
- isotonic situation
- Mitosis: Interphase
- During interphase, cells appear inactive, but this is the stage in which the DNA replicates, the centrioles divide, and proteins are produced.
- Brownian Motion
- random motion of molecules due to their KE
- Fitness
- the ability of an organism to produce offspring "survival of the fittest"
- Paramecium
- Motile Microorganism (heterotrophic) - trichocyst, contractile vacuole canals, endoplasm, ectoplasm, gullet, cilia (hairs), contractile vacuole (lets water in and out), food vacuole (contains enzymes to break down food), oral groove (ingests bacteria)
- Mitosis: Metaphase
- In metaphase, the tension applied by the spindle fibers aligns all the chromosomes in one place in the cell's center.
- Carnivore
- an individual that only eats/consumes other consumers/animals
- Decomposition
- O - O + O
- Nucleus
- membrane-bound organelle that encloses DNA
- Nucleolus
- makes ribosomes
- Codominance
- heterozygote expresses both alleles
- Continuous Data
- related data (measurement), scatter plot or line graph
- Evolution
- a change in the genetic composition of natural populations over time
- Solute
- what is being dissolved (i.e. the salt in salt water)
- Dissecting Microscope
- eye piece lens, diopter rings, body, flexible and attaching screws, clips, stage plate, focus stand base, focus stand arm, transformer, focus knobs, light source, and zooming knobs
- Competition
- 2 individuals competing for the same resources - finite amount
- Organization - Data Table
- title, original data, labeled, rows + columns, units
- Environmental Pressures
- limiting factor or geographic barrier
- Kenetichores
- a specialized structure on the centromere to which the microtubular spindle fibers attach during mitosis and meiosis
- Level of Detail
- level of detail is determined by the focus and brightness of the microscope by the size and detail of the object being observed
- Negative Control
- something that lacks the independent variable
- Genotypic Ratio
- the proportion of genotypes found in individuals after a cross
- Chloroplasts
- make sugar
- Mitosis
- Mitosis is cell division responsible for reproducing somatic cells. With multi-cellular organisms, mitosis only happens in somatic cells, which comprise all the cells in an organism excluding reproductive cells. One round of mitosis yields two identical cells.
- Dominance
- the property of one of a pair of alleles or traits that suppresses expression of the other in the heterozygous condition
- Population
- a group of interbreeding organsisms of the same species in a given area
- Structure/Function
- structure (characteristics & how something is built) defines the function (purpose & what it does), and function influences structure
- Comparative Biology
- a multidisciplinary approach to understanding organismic diversity (biodiversity) that uses natural variation and disparity to elucidate phylogenetic history
- Sex Chromosome
- a chromosome that is inherited differently in the two sexes, that is concerned directly with the inheritance of sex, and that is the seat of factors governing the inheritance of various sex-linked and sex-limited characters
- ATP
- chemical energy - temporary storage after glucose is broken down
- Carbs: Broken Down
- body breaks down carbon-carbon bonds to get energy
- Qualitative Data
- observation based, characteristics
- Consumers
- an organism requiring complex organic compounds for food which it obtains by preying on other organisms or by eating particles of organic matter
- Carbs Energy Storage (plants)
- cellulose
- Procedure
- title, independent variable (IV), dependent variable (DV), control(s), constant(s), sample size, trials, question, hypothesis
- Mitosis: Prometaphase
- During prometaphase, the nuclear envelope breaks down (absence of recognizable nucleus) and some mitotic spindle fibers elongate from the centrosomes and attach to kinetochores (proteins at the centromere of the chromosomes where sister chromatids join). The other spindle fibers elongate but overlap each other at the center of the cell instead of attaching to the chromosomes.
- Sample Size
- number of objects being tested in each experimental set-up
- Recombination
- the formation by the processes of crossing-over and independent assortment of new combinations of genes in progeny that did not occur in the parents
- Plasmolysis
- shrinking of plant cell membranes due to water loss
- Homeostasis
- a relatively stable state of equilibrium or a tendency toward such a state between the different but interdependent elements or groups of elements of an organism, population, or group
- Adaptations
- modification of an organism or its parts that makes it more fit for existence under the conditions of its environment
- Isotonic Situation
- no difference in concentration
- neutral pH
- 7
- Population
- the whole number of individuals in an area
- Homologous Structures
- in evolutionary biology, homology is any similarity between characters that is due to their shared ancestry
- Photosynthesis
- ATP + H2O + CO2 - O2 + C6H12O6 (opposite of cellular respiration)
- Hydrolosis
- adding water to polymer to break up into 2 monomers
- Meiosis
- Meiosis is cell division that results in gametes (sex cells) and assures the genetic diversity of cells. Second, meiosis involves not one (like mitosis) but two cell divisions.
- Quantitative Data
- numbers based, measurement
- Mitosis: Prophase
- In prophase, the nucleolus fades and chromatin (replicated DNA and its associated proteins) condense into chromosomes. These cells undergoing mitosis duplicate their chromosomes, resulting in cells with two times their normal haploid or diploid numbers (4N chromosomes). The newly-synthesized chromosomes are closely associated with their like-chromosome. The two identical chromosomes are called sister chromatids (they have the same genetic information). Also in prophase, the microtubules of the cytoskeleton, which shape the cell, disassemble.
- acidic pH, acid
- 1 - 6.9
- Synthesis
- O + O - O~O
- Genotype
- all or part of the genetic constitution of an individual or group
- Cell Wall
- helps plant cells maintain shape
- Data
- 1) organization - data table 2) data collection 3) analysis - graph
- Comparative Embryology/Anatomy
- the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of organisms
- Vessicles
- membrane-bound sphere that encloses something to transport
- Active Transport
- transport of a substance across a cell membrane against the concentration gradient, and it requires an expenditure of energy
- Phenotypic Ratio
- a ratio that shows the varied outcomes that results from a genetic cross and is based on physical appearance alone
- Cycling Nutrients/Flow of Energy
- Food Chains and Webs: Sun_Producers_Primary Consumer_Secondary Consumer_Decompostion
- Biodiversity
- biological diversity in an environment as indicated by numbers of different species of plants and animals
- Macromolecule: Carbs
- FUNCTION: energy storage, structure ELEMENTS: C, H, O MONOMERS: monosaccharides (fructose, glucose)
- Ions
- charged molecule - takes away or gives electrons
- # of Bonds for Hydrogen (H)
- 1
- Macromolecule: Proteins
- FUNCTION: enzymes ELEMENTS: C,H,O,N,S MONOMERS: amino acid (peptide)
- protons [p+]
- atomic number (in nucleus)
- Eukaryote Cells
- [animals, plants, fungi] 1) unicellular/multicellular 2) have nucleus 3) have membrane-bound organelles
- Chemical Energy
- ATP
- Hypothesis
- If I do this to the independent variable then this will happen to the dependent variable
- Solvent
- what it is being dissolved in (i.e. the water in salt water)
- Natality
- birth rate
- Prokaryote Cells
- [bacteria] 1) lacks nucleus 2) lacks membrane-bound organelles 3) unicellular
- Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid(s)
- 1) Adenine 2) Cytosine 3) Thymine 4) Quanine
- Zygote
- somatic cell
- Kinetic Energy
- [KE] when molecules gain energy from their atmosphere, and anything that has temperatue has motion or moving energy
- Limiting Factors
- aspects of the environment that affect abundance and distribution (i.e. geographic barriers)
- Meiosis: Anaphase I
- In anaphase I, chiasmata break apart and sister chromatids begin moving toward opposite ends of the cell (poles).
- Trial
- number of times an experiment is done
- Mitosis: Cytokinesis
- Lastly, during cytokinesis, the cell pinches in the center until it breaks into two different cells. The microtubules reorganize into a new cytoskeleton. Then, a nucleus forms around the chromosomes in each cell to yield two cells with the same original number of chromosomes as the preexisting cell. The cells return to interphase.
- Macromolecule: Lipids
- FUNCTION: energy ELEMENTS: C,H,O MONOMERS: fatty acid (saturated and unsaturated)
- Endoplasmic Reticulum
- series of tubes - rough makes proteins and smooth packages proteins
- Depth of Field
- the portion of a scene that appears sharp in the image
- Surface Area
- the measure of how much exposed area an object has, and it's expressed in square units
- # of Bonds for Oxygen (O)
- 2
- Emigration
- the process of animals leaving/moving away from an area
- Dehydration Synthesis
- enzymes remove H & OH from any 2 monomers to make water, creates bond
- Euglena
- Motile Microorganism - flagellum (tail), stigma (eye), reservoir (storage), chloroplasts, pellicle (outer covering), contractile vacuole (lets water in and out)
- Turgor Pressure
- osmosis
- Semi-Permeable Membrane
- a membrane that only allows select molecules to pass through it by diffusion
- Ecosystem
- the complex of a community of organisms and its environment functioning as an ecological unit