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"Indian Victory": With the 'Indian Victory' at Tenochtitlan, there has been a question on whether or not that it was a complete 'victory' or more importantly, complete conquest. Cortes used local natives who where Aztecs enemies to help conquer the Aztecs. The Spaniards were out numbered by they Indian allies. It is called an Indian because of the Indians conquest of the Aztecs since they out numbered the Spaniards.
Toltecs: AD 900-1150AD, Dominant force during its period, Sub group of the Chichimeca, Nahua speaking people from the northern desert, Controlled the valley of Mexico, Their capital was Tula which incorporated part of the heritage of Teotihuacan, Developed a system of cosmology, practiced religious rites, including human sacrifice, and build grand temples to their gods, There is little evidence that the Tolteca built an empire, Tula was not at the crossroads of the international trade networks of the time, Tolteca collapsed in the mid 1100's, however their influence can be seen in cross-cultural fusion of deities depicted in Mayan glyphs, frescos, and designs
Flower Wars: Was a term given to wars fought between the Aztecs and their neighboring tribes and villages. the sacrificing of humane bodies in rituals made by the Mayans. However, the nature of these wars is not considered conventially war-like. History: was an assurance for this group of people that their agricultural work would grow and their newborns would be healthy. Significance: Demonstrate their beliefs and see how things have changed over time.
Henry the Navigator: We only briefly discussed Prince Henry "the Navigator" in class. Most of what I believe that we should know is that he was Portugal's foremost explorer who tried to reach the [East] Indies by sailing around Cape Horn in Africa.
Aztecs: - Indigenous group located in central México, lived in the period referred to as the Late post-Classic. Migrated from Aztlan. They excelled in building arts and supplied foods for large cities. Had caste systems, religion, excelled in farming and farmed on chinampas which are raised fields. Their farming techniques were highly innovative in the sense that chinampas allowed year-round crops to grow. From a faith perspective, human sacrifices and war were part of their practices. Fifth sun cycle, too few human sacrifices brought a drought. Important because they made a civilization that was rich in culture and strengthened the practicality of astronomy
Virgen de Guadalupe: A symbolic symbol to Roman Catholics. It was said that la Virgen de Guadalupe appeared to a peasant in Mexico "Incarnation" of the Virgin Mary in the form of an indigenous woman, patron Saint of Mexico, and a symbol arguably of national identity more than of religious or faith identity. Juan Diego was an indigenous man who saw her in a vision. The roses he collected to prove her existence to Juan de Zumárraga, a Catholic priest, fell on his tilma/cloth before the priest and arranged to form an image of the virgin.
Spanish Caste System: classification by race and mixed breeds (castes) that was adopted by the Spanish which dictated an individual's relative importance. However, there is asense of fuidity in the system, ont a one-drop rule, people can BUY their way to higher classification. History: native women and women from the castes did unskilled work while middle-class women continued on with their education. Significance: time has passed by and yet we still see this today with most Hispanics/Latinos working in the lowest level there is. top: Spanish immigrants ("Peninsulars" in Acuña) next: Creoles/Criollos (Spaniards born in the New World) next: Mestizos/mixed race bottom: Native and African slaves
Monte Alban: Monte Alban was the ancient capital of the Zapotecs and one of the first cities in Mesoamerica, it is considered as the principle center of Zapoteca. During its time, it was one of the most populated. Located in the central valley of Oaxaca, Monte Alban exercised political, economic, and ideological control over the other communities and surrounding mountains Great plazas, pyramids, a ball court, and underground passageways graced the city Decline began after AD 650 which saw the rise of other strong city states in the valley, such as MIlta, in the eastern part of the Oaxacan valley
1492: The presence of race and ethnicity began to seep into the culture. This is due in part of the dispelling of 100,00 Jews. The year turned the European continent into a major player on the world stage (for a temporary time). Natural resources from the New World paid for European explansion and its cultural renaissance. The conquerors destroyed the America's indigenous viallages and trade centers which constituted a cohesive 'world system', reducing them to small fraction of their original size. Furthermore, the invasion introduces African slavery and justified the enslavement of the natives. The result was the complete destruction of the Americas' original civilizations. Discovery of America by explorer, Christopher Columbus, Christopher Columbus "discovered America." He landed in the Caribbean in August 3, 1492. Christopher Columbus did not discover America but he established the contact between Europe and the "new world" creating the chain events that would happen in North America over next few centuries.
Pueblo Indians: Indians found by the Spanish in the 16th century. They were living in little villages which are "pueblos" in Spanish. Their traditional economy is based on agriculture and trade. Land was New Mixico's basic resource, and it was the heart of the Pueblo Indians' grievances against the Spanish, many who attempted to build large estates using Pueblo land and labor. Their culture was based on the value of indebtness (much like pay it forward system). Most importantly, their culture was based on a culture of harmony. Howeer, by the 1500s, Chirtian-like missions began. The Friars saw the Pueblo Indians as an opportunity for a true Heavenly Kingdom. However, the missions pretty much exacerbated a flourishing culture. The Pueblo Indians population was essentially erased in the sense that the population went from 60,000 to a mere 17,000. The importance of the Pueblo Indians lie in the fact that they are considered to be the group to have a successful revolt. They are credited for creating the first time the European Expansion in North America turned back.
Maize: Corn was cultivated by Aztecs after civilization was developed. First domesticated and cultivated in the central valley of Mexico. It was the primary dietary staple. Maize brought cultures together. It is one of the few food plants that diverse cultures have in common. From the worship and religion that delineated from maize, a rich culture developed through the introduction of art and ceremonies. However, the European invasion put the corn cultures in danger of extinction, and the threat lingers on today in places like Oaxaca, Mexico where genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been found in the native corn.
Hernan Cortes: Considered a Spanish Conquistador, and was considered the man who led the fall of the Aztec empire. He was born into a family considered to be of minor nobility. But as a teenager he enrolled in a University, and at the age of 25 he conquered Cuba, following a short eight years later conquered Mexico -- with only 450 men. Cortes landed in Vera Cruz, and from then on continued on his conquest of more land. His contribution relies on the fact that he was an individual part of the group of Spanish colonizers that began the first track of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
Hispanic/Latino Debate: Latino = identifies indigenous people descended from theindigenous Indians of the Americas south of the United States and the Caribbean. The term "Hispanic" identifies the white Iberian Peninsula that includes Spain and Portugal. It identifies people who speak the same language, .The term 'Hispanic' has been a government designated term to steal a culture, due to the association of 'Hispanic' and colonization. In class, some arguments stated Latinos as a more of an organic of term, but it leaves out certain groups. But most importantly through the debate, we can see that a label changes people's course.
Cuahtemoc: Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan from 1520 to 1521. He was the nephew to Montezuma II. Took the throne at age 18. Aztec s King at the time that Tenochtitlán fell to Cortés and his men. He was captured by Cortés and his men on a causeway during egress from the capital city. He was tortured primarily for the purpose of divulging location of gold, which, ironically, was of relatively little intrinsic value to the Aztecs.
Santa Fe Trail: A transportation route connecting Missouri and Sante Fe, New Mexico. It served as an international trade route between the United States and Mexico. North Americans began regular contact with New Micico in the 1920s when they initiated the Sante Fe Trail. North Americans had secretely traded with New Mexicans since the Lousiansa Purchase of 1903. Before the Sante Fe Trail came about, New Mexicans traded almost exclusively with Chihuahhua, whose mericahnts controlled between the two provinces. Nevertheless, economic interests brought North American and EMxican traders closer, and by the 1940s Mexican merchants were sending their children to schools and to business houses as apprentices. The importance of the trail was in the flourishing of the commerice.
1518: The year prior to contact with Cortes. It was also they year of the Aztecs "golden era". The Aztec were expanding their culture almost reaching Central America.. Montezuma was looked as a demi god by the Aztecs. The fifth sun cycle begins to end. Omen are about. Relationship to modern day-Chicanos today name the Southwest of the United States as Aztlan (thought to be where the Aztecs came from ) to reclaim their identity, roots and ancestor.
Mother Culture: The Mother culture was a moniker to term the advanced Olmeca civilization. They were so advanced that they were considered the mother culture of Mexcio. IN Acuna text, he theorized that the 'mother culture' was the product of the cross-fertilization of indigenous cultures that included other Mesoamerican civilizations and cultures. The Olmeca has been credited to have built the first kingdoms and established a template of world view and political symbolism the Maya would inherit. In addition to that, the culture has also been credited to be one of the world's first tropical lowland civilizations, and created the breakthrough of pottery.
The Valldoid Debate: A debate in the Spanish city of Valladolid from 1550 to 1551. This debate was a concern over the treatment of the natives in the New World and one side of the argument said they should be treated the same as others because they were free men and the other side of the argument insisted the Indians were natural slaves. The Valladoid Debate: The Valladoid debate was focused on the treatment of the natives of the new world. It should be noted that the pope only allowed enslavement of the natives if they were cannibals, and henceforth, most of the conquistadors claimed that the natives they encountered were, infact cannibals. These debates also consisted of arguments as to whether or not the natives had rational souls. La castas I am somewhat unsure of this, but I believe this is concerned with the caste system of New Spain / the Mexico Territory. The Spanish, or Peninsulars were at the top. The mixed races were next below them, and then the indigenous were at the bottom
God, Glory, Gold: The idea of exploration where the rulers sent their men to find things such as spices, riches, and other resources that would make their country rich and important. The rulers also sent them to spread their religion and finally they wanted the personal glory of all this. The Spanish explorers were said to have three primary objectives: that the name of the king be made great (glory), that Catholicism be spread (God), and that riches would be found in and returned from the New World (gold). However, as we discussed in class, the reconquista of Spain was relatively recent, and many of the explorers at this time did not hail to the singular king of the Spanish empire, but lesser monarchs for smaller kingdoms and duchies that made up the greater whole of Spain.
The number 0: Considerable discussion has taken place about whether the Olmeca or the Maya discovered the concept of zero. The number zero or circa was discovered in 200BC, The Olmecs developed three calendars : a ritual calendar with a 260 day cycle that was used for religious purposes; a solar calendar with 18 months of 20 days, plus 5 days tacked on (corresponding to our 365 day calendar), In order to be able to develop calendars with cycles that ran above 20 days the number zero was necessary.
Mestizaje: From what I can find, this just means Mestizo, a person of mixed Spanish and indigenous ancestry. The significance of this is, well, significant. The English, Dutch, etc settlers of the New World usually came with their families, which meant that there was little of sexual relations between races, as families were already together before emigrating Europe. With the Spanish, however, most settlers were single, and thus most of the progeny of those men would be mestizos since most of the settlers would take spanish wives and mistresses/concubines. In this way, the parts of the New World settled by Spain are significantly different than parts of the New World settled by peoples from other nations. This is significant culturally in that the culture blends European and indigenous influences much more completely than other New World settlements. Additionally, a new race was in a way created which really didn't happen, and likely still doesn't happen often in the British colonies/U.S.
Fifth Sun Cycle: Thought of as the cycle in which the earth will end (for the Aztecs). In contrast to the Myth of Quetzalcoatl, was that the Fifth Sun Cycle did not mention Quetzalcoatl at all. In class we discussed that the Friars used this story to benefit them in the essence of leading the indigenous people to have more belief in the Christian faith. The Aztecs believed that they lived in the Fifth sun. The fifth sun what they last sun and they would end with either a plague or starvation.
Genocide: "the deliberate and systematic extermination of a national, racial, political, or cultural group." Most likely Gonzalo is going to refer to whether or not we believe that the decimation of the indigenous people in Mexico ought to be deemed genocide. About 24 million out of the 25 million indigenous inhabitants of Mexico did die. That would seem to lead us to believe that it was genocide by the Spanish. Let us not forget, however, that most of these deaths were the products of a disease. And no, these diseases, which included the smallpox virus, were not spread via deliberate transmission as with biological warfare. This transmission was accidental, so for this reason, it would be quite a stretch (in my own opinion) to label the mass deaths of indigenous as genocide.
Americanization of the Catholic Church: The Catholic Church played a mysterious role, splitting into a Mexican and a Euroamerican Catholic church. The leader of the Mexican clergy was Father Antonio Jose Martinez. Martinez criticized the Church for allowing preists to charge excessive fees and opposing the granting of large land grants, insisting that the land should go to the people. However, Fray J.B. Lamy arrived in New Mexico and began to challenge Martinez. Lamy had very little respect for the Mexican clergy, often criticizing them for not being celibate, and his role as advocates for the people. Lamy set the patter for church-state cooperation.
Presidio: A fortified base established by the Spanish in the 16th century to protect from attacks from the Native Americans. The Presidio played an important role in securing the safety of those that were being colonized by the Spanish. This can be seen in the aftermath of the Pueblo Revolt, where when the Spanish left, not was present to protect the safety of the Pueblo Indians following the revolt. Who was going to protect the Pueblo Indians from the neighboring tribes/villages now?
Mayan: A Mesoamerican civilization who has been credited for utilizing math and astronomy, who developed the concept of zero. In this civilization, agriculture and trade produce wealth allowed them to build temple-pyramids and other civic structures. They sacrificed humans because they believe in "since corn feeds you, we must feed you to the earth." this was done to appeased God. They also formed a trade network interacting with other chiefdoms -- other chiefs from the Gulf Coast, Oaxaca, and Central Mexico. They experimented with intensive forms of agriculture, dug irrigation canals and raised fields to reclaim wetlands, lived in patriarchy, multiple generations lived in one household. From a contrast point of view, although they lived in patriarchy, hieroglphys reveal few actual woman rulers among the Maya. The decline of the Mayan empire has been noted to be due in large association with the Maya having have built few new churches, and even fewer cities, except in the Northern Yucuatan. However, Mesoamerican scholars generally agree that no single factor caused this fall. The environment simply could not support the population indefinitely. With the Maya having had experienced a sharp decrease in rainfall, one of the most severe climate changes in 10,000 year, at roughly the time of the Maya decline in 820.
Encomienda: The Encomienda was a system where parcels of land were given to individuals (usually or always Spanish) and, in addition to that land, were also given persons to use as coerced labor, imported and indigenous. This follows neatly the form of the caste system. As discussed in class, the significance of this lies in the economic dependence on coerced labor that resulted from this. Because of the dependence on coerced labor, there was great strife that resulted after Mexico won its independence.
The Mexican Emblem: The emblem can be traced back to the Aztecs. When the Aztecs were migrating from Aztlan, they were told that the their sign of where their empire would be was an eagle standing over a cactus plant devouring a snake. It currently resides as the center of the Mexican flag. However, many meanings have been interpreted. i.e. the Eagle being the ppl. and the struggles.
Chinampa: This is the type of agriculture in which the farmers would build plots on top of shallow lakes to grow crops, and this was ubiquitous in Tenochtitlán. The brilliance of this method was that since water would rise up from the lake into the soil via adhesion, the farmers would be able to grow crops and keep them
Tenochitlan: Aztec's capital which was build on top of Lake Texcoco. During the fourteenth century, Huitzilopochtli told the Aztec chieftain that their new homeland would be on the island in Lake Texcoco, and when they reached the island they were to look for an eagle eating a snake perched on a cactus growing from a rock or cave surrounded bywater. This would be the location where they were to build their city and honor him. The city grew to a point where there was no more room for expansion on the island and they were forced to move out into the lake areas. The agricultural portion of this expansion was successful because of the invention of the chinampas or floating gardens. The city flourished until the year 1521 when Hernandez Cortes and his Spanish army invaded and captured the city Nahua located on an island in Lake Texcoco (Mexico City), in the Valley of Mexico. Aztec's capital founded btw 1325-1345
La Castas: Those who were were the product of racial mixing of two different races., priviledge group taking away from others.
Myth of Quetz.: was a myth that was created AFTER the conquest of Mexico. The myth was in large association with Cortes. The association and belief was that Cortes was either related to or the god Quetzalcoatl himself. The myth took on more of an incarnation approach and claimed that Cortes was going to go ahead and claim his own, essentially take the Aztec empire as it was rightfully his
Taos Revolt: A revolt against Americans during the Mexican-American War. The revolt was led by a Hispanic man named Pablo Montoya and the Taos Indians were led by a man named Tomas Romero. Many of the wealthiest New Maxicans were clearly unhappy with Mexican rule and sought autonomy and independence. Nearly every village in the Rio Arriba area supported the revolt. The rebel army numbered over one thousand rebels. Oncluding the revoled, US troops killed some 150 mexicans, and the tribunal sentenced 15 rebels to death. Although there was a myth of a 'bloodless conquest of New Mixico' - that is that New Mexicans welcomed the North Americans troops as liberators, the reality begged to differ. As there was considerable anti-American feelings before the occupation
La Llorana: Indigenous woman who marries out of her class to a Spanish man. He ends up leaving her for another woman and she kills all of her kids. It is said that her ghost appears crying for her children. She is significant because of the context of comparison of the fall of the Aztec empire, ..Aztec pride drove La Malinche to acts of vengeance. In this context, the tale compares the Spanish invasion of Mexico and the demise of indigenous culture after the conquest with La Llorona's loss.
Significance of Mexican American History: When we speak of immigration, we refer to the great waves of migration from Europe, and ignore the large migration from Mexico, Mexican Americans. It is important because we need to know what forces pushed them to the Southwest and discover what the Texas Revolution and the Mexican War meant for the region's inhabitants. We also need to find out what the development of the Great Southwest meant for the people who toiled in farms, the canneries, oil fields, copper mines and smelters, and rail yards. To understand their history will expand our minds to think in a wider perspective.
The Reconquista: The taking over of Spain by Catholic sects from the Islamic Moors, who had control of Spain for about 800 years. The Reconquest/Reconquista essentially began right at the beginning of the Moors' governership of Spain. Note that the Reconquista did not just take place in the 1400s, it is only that it was completed during that time. It really began about 700 and was completed in 1492 with the conquest of the last remaining Islamic kingdom of Grenada in the south.
Moctezuma II: it was during his time until the Spanish came that they lived in the "golden era." Part of the blame for the fall of Aztec Society. Although he was part of the blame for the fall of the Azetec empire, it was also during his time that the Aztec empire reached its population prime. Because of the time of the expanding empire, Moctezuma could be credited to show the idea of hybrization (together froming a mixture of cultures).
La Malinche: was an indigenous woman from the Coast of Mexico, who played an active and in the conquest of Mexico. Acting as interpreter (multiple languages), advisor and intermediary for Hernán Cortés. She is also his mistress, and is associated as a traitor to her people. Her importance as a woman in the face of war is very significant because it poses the question of why all of a sudden one woman responsible for the fall of an ethnic group? Femailes as a barrier in culture

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