Physiology Final Review

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What is peristalsis?: a wave of muscular contraction that pushes the bolus ahead of it, triggered by the bolus sliding off the epiglottis and stretching the esophagus. This is moderated partly by a short reflex through the myenteric nerve plexus
follicular phase: The first phase of the ovarian cycle, during which a follicle (an oocyte and its surroudning cells) enlarges and matures. This phase is under the control of FSH from the anterior pituitary, and typically lasts from day 1 to day 14 of the menstrual cycle. The follicle secretes estrogen during this time period, this big surge of estrogen triggers a big surge of LH which triggers a small surge of FSH -- the big surge of LH is what triggers ovulation
primary oocyte: An oocyte that is in its growth phase and is at a stage that is prior to the completion of the first maturation division.
Heimlich Maneuver: technique for removing a foreign body from the trachea or pharynx by exerting diaphragmatic pressure
Boyle's Law in relationship to the thorax: Increase volume of the chest cavity and this causes a decrease in pressure so air comes into the system, Decrease volume in the chest cavity and pressure goes up so air goes out
tidal flow going out: alveoli, bronchioles, bronchi, larynx, pharynx, nose or mouth
Median eminence: the capillary bed connecting the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary
Why are prostaglandins added to sperm?: they work with the femal reproductive tract and react with the cervical mucus making it thinner so that sperm can more easily move through it, as well as triggering muscle contractions in the uterus and fallopian tubes (called reverse parastaltic contractions) which allows the sperm to move through the female reproductive tract much faster (1st sperm usually hits the ovaries in about 5 minutes because of this)
Larynx: The larynx links the pharynx with the trachea. The principal two functions of the larynx are to act as an open, conducting airway, and to provide a switching mechanism to direct food and air into the oesophagus and the trachea, respectively. The other role of the larynx is associated with its alternative name of the "voice box". The larynx contains the vocal cords and plays an essential role in voice production.
Which one active or quite breathing uses an extra set of muscles?: active breathing
hypernatremia: increase in plasma sodium levels above normal accompanied by water and retention and an increase in blood pressure
Prolactin: promotes breast growth and milk synthesis
glomerulus: The ball of capillaries at the beginning of the nephron where blood filtration takes place.
adenohypophysis: takes place in the anterior pituitary and is hormonal control
epididymis: used for sperm storage
fimbrae: extend off the uterine tubes and are lined with cilia that have a constant pressure sort of like a vacuum that pulls the eggs into the uterine tube if an gets fertilized it is usually within the uterine tube
What happens during gas exchange at the lung capillarie level?: O2 from the lungs to blood, CO2 from blood to lungs, diffusion along length of capillary in contact with given alveolus
luteal phase: The third phase of the ovarian cycle, during which a corpus luteum is formed from the remnants of the follicle that has ovulated its oocyte. The corpus luteum secretes progestrone and estrogen during this time period, which typically lasts from day 15 to day 28 of the menstrual cycle. Formation of the corpul luteum is triggered by the same LH surge that triggers ovulation, however in the absence of LH (levels quickly decline after the surge) the corpus luteum begins to degenerate.
long loop negative feedback: multiple places where you can have negative feedback
What influences the magnitude of diffusion?: anything that changes O2 or CO2 = ventilation rate, metabolic rate, and the Po2 in the atmospheric air
GHRH: growth hormone releasing hormone and growth hormone effects metabolism of all organic molecules
What extra set of muscles is used during active breating?: internal intercostal muscles
Hormones: chemical messenger secreted by an endocrine cell, is carried in the blood and has an effect on target cells
What is process of chloride shift?: couple the movement of bicorbonate ions out of the red blood cell and into the plasma with the transport of chloride ions into the red blood cell and out of the plasma via a transporter protein
absorption: movement of molecules from lumen of GI tract into blood or lymph
What is the typical sequence for hormonal control?: Stimulus to the hypothalamus secretion of hormone 1 which moves to the pituitary gland casing secretion of hormone 2 which moves into the plasma and travels to the third endocrine gland and secretes hormone 3 which moves into the plasma and travels to the target cells where it has a response
Respiratory distress syndrome of newborns: 2nd leading cause of death, caused because the type II alveoli cells are not mature so no surfactant is being secreted which causes the alveoli to stick together
Renin: a proteolytic enzyme secreted by the kidneys catalyzes the formation of angiotensin and thus affects blood pressure
Leydig cells and functions: produce testosterone which in turn stimulates the production of Wolfian ducts and the development of male plumbing and external genitalia
afferent arteriole: A group of blood vessels that supply the nephrons of the kidney and later diverge into the capillaries of the glomerulus; they play an important role in the regulation of blood pressure, the vessel that conducts blood towards the glomerulus of a kidney nephron
urethra: Located between penis and bladder; tube that transports semen out of body/ also transports urine out of male body.
Bowman's capsule oncotic pressure: due to the proteins in the interstitial fluid surrounding the glomerulus, favors filtration
estrogens: These hormones are produced by the ovaries and are responsible for the development of the secondary sex characteristics of the female at puberty, act with progesterone to bring out the cyclic changes of the uterine lining, and help prepare the mammary glands for lactation.
intra - alveolar pressure: the pressure of the air within the alveoli
renal pelvis: a structure shaped like a funnel in the outlet of the kidney into which urine is discharged before passing into the ureter
Embryonic development - female: xx chromosomes, and have NO SRY gene, which causes the primordial gonads to develop into fetal ovaries, this means there is no production of Mullerian Inhibiting substance so that the Mullerian ducts are not regressed, now we have Mullerian ducts that transform into the uterus and uterine tubes, there is also no production of testosterone which means that the Wolfian ducts are now regressed so we have no development of male plumbing or male external genitalia instead we get the development of female external genitalia
nephron: is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney. Its chief function is to regulate the concentration of water and soluble substances like sodium salts by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine
SS: depresses release of growth hormone
filtration: bulk flow of protein-free plasma from the glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's capsule
intercostal muscles: Muscles between ribs that help with breathing. When contracted they pull ribs out and up.
meiotic arrest: after a primary oocyte first division meiotic arrest causes these cells to stay in this phase until right before ovulation
secondary oocyte: Meiotic division of the primary oocyte results in one secondary oocyte and one polar body the larger cell produced from meosis I that recieves most of the cytoplasm; surrounded by multiple layers of cells; secondary follicle; haploid after meiosis I; begins meiosis II and stops in metaphase - resumes when sperm penetrates, the smaller cell that remains is called a polar body and is shed from the body
renal veins: Any of the veins that accompany the renal arteries and open at right angles into the vena cava at the level of the second lumbar vertebra.
What is the structure of a hemoglobin?: large protein, 4 heme subunits, each containing an Fe /// alpha, beta, gamma, delta chains (globins)
urinary bladder: a sacklike muscular organ that stores urine until it is eliminated from the body.
Glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure: due to blood pressure, favors filtration
posterior pituitary: controlled by nervous control
SRY: gives you testes if no SRY you get ovaries instead
Sites of gas exchange: lung capillaries tissue capillaries, within cell
Central chemoreceptors: are located in the medulla and stimulate medullary inspiratory neurons in response to increased H+ in the brain extracellular fluid
Proteins are broken down in the digestive system by: the stomach (chemically) and the small intestine (chemically and mechanically) by the enzymes pepsin (stomach) and trypsin (small intestine)
Angiotensin: Angiotensinogen secreted by the liver
What is the fate of a hormone?: excreted, inactivated by metabolism, actions on target cells then inactivated after action is completed, catalyzes formation of active hormone from plasma protein
distal tubules: the part of the tubule distal to the ascending limb of the loop of Henle that terminates in a collecting tubule; also known as the distal convoluted tubule, where water reabsorption occurs
transpulmonary pressure: the difference between the intrapleural pressure and the intra-alveolar pressure
pre- pro hormone: not active yet - the golgi body in the cell cleaves off the pre portion of the hormone and releases it to the bloodstream then something else cleaves off the pro portion of the peptide which now makes it an active protein or peptide
endocrine gland: group of cells that secrete hormones into the intercellular space, the hormones then diffuse into the blood stream
Renal Clearance Equation: RC= Ux (Vx) / Px
hypophysiotropic hormone: are delivered from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary
proximal tubules: An important part of the kidney tubular system. Urine enters here after being created in the glomerulus. The proximal tubule recovers much of the things that were too small to be filtered out and the body can't afford to lose in the urine. It also secretes many wastes/toxins that were not effectively filtered into the urine.
target cell or tissue: have receptors or a given hormone and will have a reaction with that chemical
collecting ducts: receives urine from many nephrons and runs downward through the medullary pyramids, giving them their striped appearance. they give the striped appearance. as they approach the renal pelvis, they fuse to form larger papillary ducts, which empty the final urinary product into the clayces and pelvis of the kidney
What do the salivary glands do?: help breakdown food by chemical action, digest polysaccharides in the oral cavity
anterior pituitary: controlled by hormonal control
Epiglottis: A cartiligious flap that blocks the top of the windpipe, the glottis, during swallowing, which prevents the entry of food or fluid into the respiratory system.
Alveoli: (singular alveolus.) Tiny sacs, with walls only a single cell layer thick found at the end of the respiratory bronchiole tree. Alveoli are the site of gas exchange in the respiratory system.
Embryonic development - male: xy chromosomes, and have the presence of SRY gene (on the Y chromosome), which causes the primordial gonads to develop into fetal testes, begin producing Sertoli cells which stimulate the production of Mullerian inhibiting substance that causes regression of Mullerian ducts and Leydig cells which stimulates the production of testosterone that causes development Wolfian ducts that turn into the male internal plumbing and because of the testosterone present we also get male external genitalia
What happens during gas exchange at the tissue capillaries?: reverse direction
neurohypophysis: takes place in the posterior pituitary and is neural control
What are the external steps of respiration?: ventilation and gas exchange
percent saturation: is determined by Po2 and amount of Hb Percent saturation = (O2 bound to Hb) / (max capacity of Hb) x 100
MIF: inhibits production of female duct system in developing embryo
amount excreted =: amount filtered + amount secreted - amount reabsorbed
ADH=antidiuretic hormone: - secreted from the posterior pituitary gland, stimulates the synthesis of aquaporin-2 and its insertion into the apical membrane of cells in the late distal tubules and collecting ducts to allow water reabsorption
deoxyhemoglobin: is hemoglobin without O2 bound to it
What keeps the wet surfaces of the alveoli from sticking together?: Interplueral pressure helps keep them pulled apart as well as the cells in the alveoli that secrete surfactant into the fluid
Catecholamines: made in the medulla, from actual or modified neural tissue, such as epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine, are important roles in behavior and stress responses
What are the internal steps of respiration?: gas exchange and oxygen utilization
How are hormone levels controlled in the body?: by negative feedback, long-loop negative feedback, maintain homeostasis, and over production of hormone eventually results in decrease in production of that hormone or vice versa
Diaphragm: muscular partition that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity and moves up and down to aid respiration
What happens when you puncture intrapleural space?: you get lung collapse
What does the gallbladder do?: stores and concentrates bile
ANP=atrial natriueretic peptide: - secreted by cells in the atria wall in response to a distention of the wall, increases sodium excretion rate by increasing glomerular filtration rate and decreasing sodium reabsorption
Oxytocin: triggers contractions during labor and milk let down
ultrafiltrate: the particles that get filtered before anything is added or removed
Variety in Reproduction: Crossing over during meiosis during the formation of gametes, Independent assortment during metaphase I of meiosis, Random fertilization
Why can't proteins cross the filtration barrier?: because they're too big and too negative
renal arteries: arteries that diverge from the descending aorta and supply blood to each kidney. it contains approximately 1/4 of the total blood flow of the body.
Amines: catecholamines and thyroid hormones, all amines are derivatives of tyracine and are semi essential - in order to produce them we have to take in an essential amino acid so that we can build the amine
Flow rate equation: flow = pressure difference / resistance
Henry's law: Diffusion of gasses into liquid is proportional to partial pressure of each gas
Conducting zone: The conducting zone of the respiratory system is composed of the nose, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. These structures cleanse, warm, and moisten the inhaled air before it reaches the site of gas exchange.
aldosterone: hormone that act on the nephrons distal tubules, making them reabsorb more sodium and water and increasing blood volume and pressure.
Type 2 alveolar cells: these are epithelial cells in an aveolus that secretes surfactant, which reduces surface tension inside the lungs and prevents the collapse of alveoli during exhalation
lungs: the main organs of respiration consisting of 3 LOBES ON THE RIGHT and 2 LOBES ON THE LEFT located at the front of the chest or thorax. When oxygen is transferred to blood and CO2 is removed from the blood and exhaled.
Type 1 alveolar cells: Are the largest (epithelial) cells in an alveolus; forms the wall of alveoli
Bowman's capsule: surrounds the glomerulus and is composed of a visceral inner layer and a parietal outer layer, both formed by simple squamous epithelial cells. Fluids from blood in the glomerulus are collected in the Bowman's capsule and further processed along the nephron to form urine
hyponatremia: decrease in plasma sodium levels below normal acompanied by water loss and a decrease in blood
What are the two controls of ventilation?: Quite breathing and active breathing
Pharynx: muscular tube at the end of the gastrovascular cavity, or throat, that connects the mouth with the rest of the digestive tract and serves as a passageway for air and food
What are the two ways that hydrogen ions are bound by hemoglobin?: by binding the hydrogen ions to the amino acids in the hemoglobin, and by chloride shift
testes: control changes in a male's body and regulate sperm production consist of the epididymis and the seminiferous tubules
prostate gland: Approximately 30% of the fluid added to sperm to form semen is added at this point, the fluid added here consists of CA, citrate ions, phosphate ions, clotting enzyme, pro-fibrinolysin - this fluid that is added is very alkaline so it raises the pH of the semen to approximately 6.0-6.5 the reason for this is to provide the ideal environment for sperm allowing them to become very active
Why is fruitose added to sperm?: to provide energy to help the sperm make ATP
GnRH: Gonadatropin releasing hormone
seminal vesicle: fluid is added to the sperm at the seminal vesicle, approximately 60% of the fluid that is added to the sperm to form semen is added at this point, it consists of fruitose, citric acid, fibrinogins, and prostaglandins
peritubular capillary: capillary that surrounds a renal tubule and functions in reabsorption and secretion during urine formation
inhibin: A protein hormone secreted by sustenacular cells of the testes that acts to inhibit the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary.
Partial pressures: That part of total gas pressue due to molecules of one gas
ovulation: The process by which a mature egg is released from the ovaries into the fallopian tubes.
antidiuretic hormone: helps you retain water and control blood pressure
exocrine gland: secrete substances but NOT into the blood
Sertoli cells and functions: secrete luminal fluid and androgen binding protein, are stimulated by testosterone and FSH to secrete paracrine agents that stimulate sperm differentiation and proliferation, secrete inhibin which inhibits FSH secretion, secretes paracrine agents that influence Leydig cells, Phagocytose defective sperm, and secrete MIS/MIF which inhibits the production of female duct system in developing embryo
Concept of angiotensin pathway: low bp results in high renin levels which results in production of Angiotensin 1, high levels of Angiotensin 1 result in production of Angiotensin 2 which results in high androgen levels causing increased Na+ pumps and increased opening of Na+ channels which increases reabsorption of Na+ and H2O, this increases blood volume, which increases blood pressure and decreases vasoconstriction thereby bringing blood pressure back to normal
TSH: thyroid stimulating hormone
How is gas transported in the blood?: dissolved "free" or carried on a hemoglobin
cortical nephrons: Nephrons that are mostly located entirely within the cortex
renal cortex: the cortex of the kidney containing the glomeruli and the convoluted tubules
What are the three steps of Respiration?: ventilation, gas exchange, and oxygen utilization
What happens during gas exchange within the cell?: cytoplasm to mitochondria very low Po2
urethra: a tube where, during urination, urine leaves the body from the urinary bladder, which empties near the vagina in females or through the penis in males.
hypothalamus: connected to the pituitary gland by the infundibulum
tidal flow going in: nose or mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
Peripheral chemoreceptors: respond to changes in arterial Po2, PCO2 and pH by secreting a chemical messenger that triggers action potentials in the afferent neurons that lead to the medullary inspiratory neurons
efferent arteriole: Blood vessels that form from a convergence of the capillaries of the glomerulus; splits into two capillary beds: the vasa recta and peritubular capillaries, which reunite to form veins, the vessel that conducts blood away from the glomerulus of a kidney nephron
What is surfactant?: Surface acting agent that is a phospholipid which allows one side to attract to the liquid and the other side to repel so the alveoli won't stick together
What is active breathing?: contraction of inspiratory muscles and relaxation of expiratory muscles (internal intercostal muscles) followed by relaxation of the inspiratory muscles and contraction of the expiratory muscles
What shifts the curve to the left on the oxygen- hemoglobin dissociation curve?: fetal Hb and myoglobin in muscles
Starling Forces are: hydrostatic and osmotic pressure gradients that drive movement of fluid from the plasma to the inside of the renal tubules
Infundibulum: the stock connecting the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland
Calculation for partial pressure: Po2= measure of [] gas in a gas mixture x 760 (mmHg at sea level)
Glottis: the vocal apparatus of the larynx
What does the liver do?: secretes bicarbonate and bile, gets rid of old erythrocytes, produces fibrinogen, synthesizes proteins, metabolizes cholesterol and functions to metabolize hormones
FSH & LH: follicle stimulating hormone and Leutinizing hormone are responsible for gamete production and sexual hormones
Bronchi: two short branches located at the lower end of the trachea that carry air into the lungs.
Peptide hormones: small proteins, are the majority of proteins, are releasing hormones such as oxytocin, many GI hormones, and insulin, are most often released from cells as prohormones and require additional processing , are released from secretory vesicles of a cell , and can act as neurotransmitters
renal corpuscle: The division of a nephron that consists of the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule
Henry's law calculation: c = kP
Carbon dioxide transport: 5-6% dissolved in plasma, 5-8% as carb amino compounds reacts with amino groups of proteins, especially Hb: CO2 + Hb -> HbCO2, 86- 90% converted to bicarbonate: C)2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> HCO3 <-> H+ carbonic acid
Emulsification: The breakdown of large lipid globules into a suspension of small lipid globules called Micelles which present a large surface area that allows pancreatic lipase to more rapidly digest fat
Why are fibrinogens added to sperm?: normally they are a protein used to make blood clots but in this case it is used to form a clot at the opening of the cervix to prevent the sperm from leaving the uterus, this lasts about 15-30 minutes
Bronchioles: Very small air tubes in the respiratory system (diameter 0.5 - 1.0 mm). The walls of the bronchioles are made of smooth muscle (thus involuntary) to help regulate air flow.
seminiferous tubules: 250 meters long coiled inside the testes and are the site of sperm production
Functions of the respiratory system?: provides oxygen, eliminates carbon dioxide, regulates blood's pH, phonation (making sounds or talking), defends against microbes, influences arterial concentrations of chemical messengers, traps and dissolves blood clots
juxtamedullary nephrons: contain the loop of Henle, are located close to the cortex-medullary junction, and penetrate well into the medulla
TRH: Thyroid releasing hormone
ureter: either of a pair of thick-walled tubes that carry urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder
What is quite breathing?: contraction of inspiratory muscles (diaphragm, external intercostal muscles) followed by relaxation of inspiratory muscles
loop of Henle: The portion of the nephron that leads from the proximal convoluted tubule to the distal convoluted tubule; it has a hairpin bend in the renal medulla and the main function of this structure is to reabsorb water and ions from the urine.
Glomerular oncotic pressure: due to the proteins in the plasma, opposes filtration
implantation: The burrowing of a blastocyst (a developing embryo) into the endometrium of the uterus, typically occuring about a week after fertilizaiton. resulting in production of HcG, HcG travels to the corpus luteum and makes it continue to produce enough progesterone to sustain the endometrial lining up until about 3-4 months of the pregnancy. At 3-4 months the placenta is now formed and takes over the production of the progesterone to sustain the endometrial lining
What are the four accessory organs?: salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, and the pancreas
releasing hormone: released from the hypothalamus
Atmospheric pressure: the pressure of the outside air
Carbohydrates are broken down in the digestive system by: the mouth (mechanically and chemically) , the small intestine (chemically) by the enzymes saliva, and amylase
What does the pancreas do?: secretes enzymes and bicarbonate into small intestine near the common bile duct
corpus luteum: ovarian structure that forms from a follicle after ovulation; secretes progesterone and estrogen which provides the means for maintaining the endometrial lining this only lasts about two weeks before they corpus leteum shrinks and stops making enough progesterone for the endometrial lining once this happens that tissue degenerates and is shed from the body
vas deferens: narrow tube (one on each side) that carries sperm from the epididymis into the body and toward the urethra. Also called ductus deferens, approximately 10% of the fluid is added to sperm at this point and is used as a lubricating fluid
Bohr effect and what causes it?: shifts the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right this is caused by High Co2 and low pH which causes more release of O2 to the tissues
vasopressin: another name for antidiuretic hormone
fertilization: Occurs during the luteal phase and takes up to one week to enter the uterus. Part of the process of sexual reproduction in which a male reproductive cell and a female reproductive cell combine to form a new cell that can develop into a new organism.
renal medulla: The inner darker region of the kidney; deep reddish-brown in color, Holds the loops, Na+ absorbed, Cl- and H20 reabsorbed
Daltons law: partial pressure of gasses are independent
ovary: site of egg production, the female reproductive structure that produces eggs
Thyroid hormones: contain iodine, and affect almost every cell of the body via effects on metabolism
What form of hemoglobin is most common in adult humans?: Hemoglobin A (2 alpha chains, 2 beta chains)
ACTH: controls the adrenal gland
Respiratory zone: Includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli, is the only site of gas exchange.
oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve: describes the relationship between partial pressure of O2 in the system and hemoglobin saturation in teh system and is an experimentally determined curve
Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure: due to the interstitial fuild surrounding the Bowman's capsule, opposes filtration
secretion: selective transport of molecules from the peritubular fluid to the lumen of the renal tubules
Oxyhemoglobin: is hemoglobin with O2 bound to it
intrapleural pressure: the pressure inside the pleural space (between the lungs and the chest wall is a self contained body of liquid that stays the same)
Fats are broken down in the digestive system by: the small intestine (chemically and mechanically ) by the enzymes bile (emulsifies fats) and lipase (digests fats)

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