anatomy 101

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hyaline cartilage: appears glassy; the fibres are collagenic. They provide support with flexibility and resiliance.
cartilage growth: cartilages grow from within and by addition of new cartilage tissue at the periphery.
mechanical digestion: takes place in the stomach
medulla oblongata: controls heart rate, blood vessel diameter, respiratory rate, vomitting, coughing etc
the adrenal glands: sit atop the kidneys.
reticular formation: helps regulate skeletal and visceral muscle activity
the ovaries: located in the pelvic cavity release estrogens and progesterone
cerebellum: proper balance and posture and smooth coordinated skeletal muscle movements.
the bronchial tree: the right and left main bronchi run into their respective lungs, within which they continue to subdivide into amaller and smaller passageways.
accetylcholine: the neurotransmitter of somatic motor neurons, is stimulatory to skeletal muscle fibres. Neurotransmitters released by autonomic motor neurons may cause excitation or inhibition.
the penis: largely erectile tissue. ( corpus spongiosum and corpora cavernosa)
muscle contraction: the generation of force (tension) by the myosin cross bridges. Shortening of the muscle may or may not occur.
the pharynx: extends from the base of the skull to the level of C6. the nasopharynx is an air conduit; the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx are common passageways for food and air. pairs of tonsils are found in the oropharynx and nasopharynx.
first class lever system: load fulcrum effort
L.F.E
coronary circulation: the right and left coronary arteries branch from the aorta and via their main branches supply the heart itself. venous blood collected by the cardiac veins is emptied into the coronary sinus.
pons: controls respiratory rate and depth
the adrenal glands (cortex): produce: mineralocorticoids
(regulate ion reabsorption)
glucocorticoids (increases blood glucose)
gonadocorticoids (mainly androgens)
parasympathetic division: conserves body energy and maintains body activities at basal level.
the vagina: extends from the uterus to the exterior.
parasympatheic effects: pupillary constriction, glandular secretion, increased digestive tract mobility, and smooth muscle activity leading to elimination of feces and urine.
the right heart: pulmonary circuit pump. Oxygen-poor blood enters the right atrium, passes into the right ventricle, through the pulmonary trunk to the lungs, and back to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins
sympathetic division: activates the body under conditions of emergency - the fight or flight system.
the adrenal glands (medulla): produces catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) enhances or prolongs the fight or flight response
sympathetic responses: dilated pupils, increased heart and respiratory rates, increased blood pressure, dilation of the bronchioles in the lungs, increased blood glucose levels, sweating. during exercise - vasoconstriction shunts blood from the skin and digestion viscera to the heart ,brain, and skeletal muscles.
the terminal bronchioles: lead into respiratory zone structures ; alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and finally alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
action potential: set up when accetylcholine released by a nerve ending binds to ACh receptors on the sarcolemma, causing changes in membrane permeability that allow ion flows that depolarize and then repolarize the membrane.
the lymphatic system composition: lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs and tissues make up this system.
the sliding filament theory: the thin filaments are pulled toward the sarcomere centers by cross bridge (myosin head) activity of the thick filaments.
structure of blood vessel walls: all blood vessels (except capillaries) have 3 layers: tunica interna, tunica media, and tunica adventia. (capillary walls are composed of the tunica interna only)
cerebral hemispheres: localizes and interprets sensory inputs, contols voluntary and skilled skeletal muscle activity, functions in intellectual and emotional processing
arterioles: regulate blood flow into capillary beds
hair: produced by a hair follicle; consists of heavily keratinized cells. has a central medulla, a cortex and a cuticle. has a bulb a root and a shaft.
arteries: transport blood away from the heart
the correct sequence of levels forming the structural hierachy: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal
internal kidneys: a superficial cortex
a deeper medulla
a medial pelvis
epithelial membranes: simple organs consisting of an epithelium bound to an underlying connective tissue layer: include mucosae, serosae and the cutaneous membrane
elastic arteries: large arteries close to the heart, expand and recoil to accomodate changing blood volume.
second class lever system: fulcrum load effort
F.L.E
thymus: most functional during youth.
cartilage exits as: hyaline
elastic cartilage
fibrocartilage
veins: have comparitively larger lumens than arteries, and a system of valves that prevent backflow of blood.
2 organ systems that bear the major responsibility for ensuring homeostasis of the internal environment: the nervous system and the endocrine system
muscular arteries: carry blood to specific organs
the structural and functional unit of life: a cell
the vas deferens: extends from the epididymis to the urethra. propels sperm into the urethra by perstlsis during ejaculation. it's terminus fuses with the duct of the seminal vesicle forming the ejaculatory duct.
fixators: immobilize a bone or a muscle's origin
the small intestine: extends from the pyloric sphincter to the illeocecal valve. it's 3 subdivisions are the duodenum, jujunum, and ileum. the common bile duct and pancreatic duct.
the nervous system: is responsible for maintaining body homeostasis. It's cheif functions are to monitor, integrate, and respond to information in the environment.
thyro-tropin-releasing hormone: stimulates the release of TSH
dorsal body cavity: contains the brain and spinal cord
is surrounded by the bony skull and vertebral column
nephrons: the structural and functional units of the kidney
motor (efferent) division: conveys impulses from the cns
endocrine organ: ductless, well-vascularized glands that release hormones directly into the blood or lymph. they are small and widely seperated in the body.
pivot joints: only allows for uniaxial rotation of one bone around it's own long axis.
fallopian (uterine) tubes: extends from near the ovary to the uterus. moves ovulated oocytes to the uterus.
condyloid joints: permits all angular motions i.e; flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction. e.g the radiocarpal joints and the metacarpophalangeal (knuckle) joints
urinary bladder: stores urine. lies posterior to the pubic symphysis. has 2 inlets (ureters) and 1 outlet (urethra)
abduction: movement of a limb away from the midline
digestion activities: ingestion
propulsion (movement of food through the tract)
mechanical digestion (physical mixing and breakdown of foods)
chemical digestion (enzymatic breakdown)
absorption (transport of digested products to the blood)
elimination (feces)
fibrous joints: occur where bones are connected by fibrous tissue; no joint cavity; nearly all fibrous joints are synarthrotic.
capillaries: carry blood to tissue cells and are the sites of exchange
elevation: lifting a body part superiorly
dislocation: involves displacement of the articular surfaces of bones
the larynx (voice box): contains vocal cords. provides an airway and serves as a switching mechanism to route food and air into the proper channels.
ventral body cavity: includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
contains the heart, lungs, and digestive organs
nerve supply to the kidneys: derived from the renal plexus
central nervous system (CNS): the brain and spinal cord
the uterus: has a fundus, a body, and cervix. supported by the broad, lateral cervical and uterosacral and round ligaments.
elastic cartilage: contain abundant elastic fibres, in addition to collagenic fibres and are more flexible than hyaline. they support the outer ear and the epiglottis.
the pancreas: between the spleen and the small intestine. it's exocrine product, pancreatic juice is carried to the duodenum via the pancreatic duct.
dendrites: receptive sites that conduct signals from other neurons toward the nerve cell body.
the uterine wall: composed of the outer perimetrium
the myometrium
and the inner endometrium.
skeletal cartilage: exhibits chrondocytes housed in lucunae (cavities) within the extracellular matrix. contains large amounts of water, lacks nerve fibres, is avascular,and is surrounded by a fibrous perichondrium that resists expansion.
other hormone producing structures: the heart
G.I tract organs
the placenta
the kidneys
skin
and adipose tissue
hinge joints: resembles that of a mechanical hinge. permits flexion and extension only. e.g elbow, interphalangeal joints.
heart valves: the atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and bicuspid valves) prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles are contracting; the pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves prevent backflow into the ventricles when they are relaxing.
tract: a bundle of fibres in the CNS
respiration phases: ventilation
external respiration
internal respiration
transport of respiratory gases in the blood.
connective tissue functions: support
protection
binding
insulation
transportation(blood)
sprains: involve stretching or tearing of joint ligaments
axons: generates and conducts nerve impulses away from the nerve cell body
the thyroid gland: located in the anterior throat. releases thyroid hormones which increase the rate of cellular metabolism.
sebaceous glands: occur all over the body except palms and soles of feet. simple alveolar glands; their oily secretion is called sebum. their ducts usually empty into hair follicles.
types of synovial joints: plane joints
hinge joints
pivot joints
condyloid joints
saddle joints
ball and socket joints
bone consist of: a hard, collagen-containing matrix embedded with calcium salts
opposition: when you touch your thumb to the tips of the other fingers on the same hand.
the vertebral column: includes 24 moveable vertebrae (7 cervical,12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar) and the sacrum and coccyx.
structure of the nose: the external nose is shaped by bone and cartilage plates. the nasal cavity which opens to the exterior is divided by the nasal septum. paranasal sinuses and naso lacrimal ducts drain into the nasal cavities.
the skull: formed by 22 bones. The cranium forms the vault and base of the skull. the facial skeleton provides openings for the respiratory and digestive passages.
the stomach: lies in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen. major regions are the cardia, fundus, body and pyloric region.
cardiac muscle: forms the walls of the heart; pumps blood; cells are branched and striated.
the scrotum: contains the testes. provides a slightly lower temperature than that of the body which is required for viable sperm production.
osteoarthritis: a degenerative condition most common in the aged.
urethra: conveys urine from the bladder to the body exterior. has an internal sphincter at the bladder and an external sphincter at the urogenital diaphragm.
ribs: the first 7 rib pairs are called true ribs.
the rest are called false ribs.
ribs 11 and 12 are floating ribs.
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): promotes normal development and activity of the thyroid gland
terminal ends of axons: release neurotransmitters
external female genetalia: collectively the vulva; mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, urethral and vaginal orifaces.
cartiligenous joints: the bones are united by cartilage; no joint cavity.
myofibrils: contractile elements that occupy most of the cell volume. Their banded appearance results from a regular alternation of dark (a) and light (i) bands. They are chains of sarcomeres.
hypodermis: a subcutaneous tissue on which the dermis rests.
the trachea: extends from the larynx to the primary bronchi. it is reinforced by C-shaped cartilage rings. it's mucosa is ciliated.
dorsiflexion: lifting the foot so that it's superior surface approaches the shin
insulin: released by beta cells (the pancreas) when there is high blood glucose levels. increases the rate of glucose uptake and metabolism by most cells
the skin / integument is composed of: an outer epidermis
a deeper dermis
the mammary glands: lie over the pectoral muscles of the chest and are surrounded by adipose and fibrous connective tissue. each mammary gland consists of many lobules which contain milk-producing alveloi.
plantarflexion: depressing the foot and pointing the toes
the epididymis: hugs the external surface of the testis and serves as a site for sperm maturation and storage.
extension: increases the angle between the articulating bones - straightening movement.
glucagon: released by alpha cells (the pancreas) when blood glucose levels are low - stimulates the liver to release glucose to the blood
the pectoral (shoulder) girdle: consists of 1 clavicle and 1 scapula.
attaches the upper limbs to the axial skeleton.
lymphatic vessels: lymphatic capillaries, collecting vessels, trunks and ducts - fluid flows only toward the heart.
blood consists of: blood cells in a fluid matrix (plasma)
autonomic (involuntary) system: innervates smooth and cardiac muscles and glands
micturition: emptying of the bladder
sweat glands: eccrine
apocrine
the nose: provises an airway for respiration, warms, moistens, and cleanses incoming air, and houses the olefactory receptors.
layers of the epidermis: from deep to superficial:
basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum and corneum.
function of the reproductive system: to produce offspring. the gonads produce sperm or ova and sex hormones.
arthritis: joint inflammation or degeneration accompanied by stiffness, pain and swelling.
the testes: each tetis is divided into many lobules each containing sperm producing seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells that produce androgens.
epidermis consists of: a keritinized sheet of stratified sqaumos epithelium. Most epidermal cells are keritinocytes in the deepest epidermal layers are melanocytes, markel cells and langerhan's cells.
absorption: takes place in the small intestine
movements allowed by synovial joints: nonaxial movement
uniaxial movement
biaxial movemet
multiaxial movement
the pineal gland: located in the diencephalon produses melatonin which influences daily rythms
thigh/knee/leg/foot bones: femur
patella
tibia and fibula
tarsals
metatarsals
phalanges
the thymus: located in the upper thorax
important to the normal development of the immune response
bursae: bursae are fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane and containing synovial fluid.
allows adjacent structures to move smoothly over one another.
lymphatic system functions: returns fluids that have leaked from the blood vascular system back to the blood. Protects the body by removing foreign material from the lymph stream, and provides a site for immune surveillance.
flexion: a bending movement that decreases the angle of the joint and brings the articulating bones closer together.
location of kidneys: in the superior lumbar region
types of cartiligenous joints: synchondroses
symphyses
the gallbladder: a muscular sac that lies beneath the right liver lobe, stores and concentrates bile.
synovial joints: all have a joint cavity enclosed by a fibrous capsule lined with a synovial membrane and reinforced by ligaments. articulating bone ends covered in articular cartilage and synovial fluid in the joint cavity.
major endocrine organs: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal, and thymus glands, as well as the pancreas and gonads. the hypothalamus is a neuro-endocrine organ.
types of fibrous joints: sutures
syndemoses
gomphoses
lymphatic capillaries: very permeable, admitting proteins and matter from the interstitial space.
types of joints: fibrous
cartilaginous
synovial
the lungs: organs of gas exchange. in the thoracic cavity. each lung is in it's own pleural cavity. the right lung has 3 lobes while the left lung has 2 lobes.
skin appendages include:: hair follicles
nails
glands (sweat and sebaceous)
calcitonin: produced by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland in response to rising blood calcium levels, depresses blood calcium levels by inhibiting bone matrix resorption and enhancing calcium deposit in bone.
joints/articulations: sites where bones meet.
their functions are to hold bones together and to allow various degrees of skeletal movement.
coverings of the kidney: a renal capsule, an adipose capsule, and renal fascia surround each kidney - the fatty adipose capsule helps hold the kidneys in position.
rotation: the turing of a bone around it's own long axis
lymph nodes: clustered along lymphatic vessels, filter lymph.
Neuroglia (supporting cells): segregate and insulate neurons and assist neurons in various other ways
characteristics of blood: viscous, slightly alkaline fluid about 8% of total body weight
T Tubules: invaginations of the sarcolemma that run between the terminal cisternae of the SR. They allow the electrical stimulus to be delivered quickly to deep cell regions.
ureters: slender tubes running from each kidney to the bladder. They conduct urine by perstalsis from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder.
third class lever system: load effort fulcrum
L.E.F
components of blood: formed elements and plasma
connective tissue: originate from embryonic mesenchyme and exhibit matrix
functions of blood: delivery of oxygen and nutrients to body tissues,
removal of metabolic wastes, transport of hormones, maintenance of body temperature, fluid volume, prevention of infections and homeostasis.
nucleus: a collection of cell bodies in the CNS
pronation: the forearm rotates medially and the palm faces posteriorly or inferiorly.
plasma proteins: albumin (contributes to osmotic pressure of blood)
globulins
and clotting proteins
arm/forearm/hand bones: humerus
radius and ulna
carpals
metacarpals
phalanges
subdivisions of the renal tubule (nephrons): the glomerular capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of henle and distal convoluted tubule.
ganglion: a collection of cell bodies in the PNS
leukocytes (white blood cells): defend against disease
includes: nutrophils (active phagocytes) basophils (histamine) and eosonphils (attack parasitic worms)
nervous tissue: forms organs of the nervous system. it is composed of neurons and supporting cells
plasma: 90% water
10% solutes (nutrients, respiratory gases, salts, hormonesand proteins)
plasma makes up 55% of blood
muscle functions: muscles move internal and external body parts, maintain posture, stabilize joints and generate heat.
the liver's digestive role: to produce bile, which it secretes into the common hepatic duct.
the pelvic girdle: specialised for weight baring.
composed of 2 hip bones that secure the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. together with the sacrum, the hip bones form the basinlike bony pelvis.
functions of the nephron: filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion.
bursitis: inflammation of a bursa
lymphatic ducts: the right lymphatic duct drains lymph from the right arm and right side of the upper body; the thoracic duct receives lymph from the rest of the body.
gliding movements: 1 flat or nearly flat bone surface glides or slips over another similar surface
formed elements: erythrocytes (red blood cells)
leukocytes (white blood cells)
thrombocytes (platelets)
all formed elements arise from hemocytoblasts in red bone marrow
eversion: the sole faces laterally
erythrocytes (red blood cells): contain large amounts of hemaglobin. major function is oxygen transport.
muscle tissue: consists of elongated cells specialized to contract and cause movement.
functions of the kidney: eliminate nitrogenous metabolic wastes, regulate the volume, composition and PH of the blood.
prime movers: bear the cheif responsibility for producing movement
the spleen: provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation and immune function, destroys aged or defective red blood cells and bloodborne pathogen. stores platelets.
sensory (afferent) division: conveys impulses to the CNS
thrombocytes (platelets): help in clotting
gross anatomy of a skeletal muscle: skeletal muscle fibres (cells) are protected and strengthened by connective tissue coverings. Deep to superficial these are: endomysium, perimysium and epimysium.
ingestion: takes place in the mouth - chewing, swallowing etc
hyperextension: bending the head backwards beyond it's upright position
blood flow of the heart: the right ventricle discharges blood into the pulmonary trunk, the left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta
neurons: have a cell body (soma) and cytoplasmic processes called axons and dendrites
the heart: about the size of a clenched fist, located within the mediaststinum of the thorax
angular movements: increase or decrease the angle between 2 bones;-flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction
hemostasis: prevention of blood loss
1/ vascular spasms
2/platelet plug formation
3/blood coagulation
the bony thorax: the bones of the thorax include the 12 rib pairs, the sternum, and the thoracic vertebrae. Protects the organs of the thoracic cavity.
nephron consist of: a glomerulus
a renal tubule
appendicular skeleton: the bones of the pectoral and pelvic girdles and the limbs
lymphoid organs: include lymph nodes, the sleen, thymus, tonsils, and follicle aggregates.
axial skeleton: the longitudinal axis of the body; skull, vertebral column, bony thorax
the large intestine: the cecum, colon, rectum and anal canal.
inversion: the sole of the foot turns medially
lymphoid cells: include lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages, reticular cells
skeletal muscle: attached to and moves the bony skeleton; cells are cylindrical and striated
layers of the heart wall: endocardium (inner)
myocardium (middle)
epicardium (outer)
tendonitis: inflammation of a tendon sheath
coverings of the heart: outer parietal pericardium
inner viseral pericardium
sarcomeres: each sarcomere contains thick (myosin) and thin (actin) myofilaments arranged in a regular array. the heads of myosin molecules form cross bridges that interact with the thin filaments.
smooth muscle: in the walls of hollow organs; propels substances through the organs; cells are spindle shaped and non-striated.
parathyroid glands: located on the dorsal aspect of the thyroid gland - secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) which causes and increase in blood calcium levels by targeting bone, the intestine, and kidneys (PTH is the antagonist of calcitonin)
supination: rotating the forearm laterally so that the palm faces anteriorly or superiorly
adduction: movement of a limb toward the midline
hormones: reproduction, growth and development, mobilization of body defenses to stressors, maintaining electrolyte, water and nutrient balance, and regulating cellular metabolism.
chemical digestion: takes place in the small intestine - pancreatic juice and bile breakdown the food.
depression: moving an elevated body part inferiorly
the left heart: systemic circuit pump. oxygenated blood entering the left atrium from the lungs flows into the left ventricle and then into the aorta, systemic veins return the oxygen-depleted blood to the right atrium.
cartilage injuries: may result from excessive twisting or high pressure. The avascular cartilage is unable to repair itself.
he digestive system: includes organs of the G.I tract - mouth , pharynx, eosophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and accessory digestive organs - teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
plane joints: allow only short slipping or gliding movements e.g the intercarpal and intertarsal joints and the joints between vertebral articular processes.
circumduction: moving a limb so that it describes a cone
the smallest unit capable of life by itself: the cell
classification of bones: bones are classified as long, short, flat, or irregular
fibrocartilage: contain thick collagen fibres are the most compressible cartilages and are resistant to stretch. They form vertebral discs and knee joint cartilages.
proprioreceptors: respond to internal stimuli, located in the musculoskeletal organs. Advise the brain of our own movements.
mechanoreceptors: touch, pressure (including blood pressure) vibration, stretch and itch
sensory receptors: specialized to respond to environmental changes (stimuli)
nocireceptors: respond to potentially damaging stimuli that cause pain.
somatic nervous system: provides motor fibres to skeletal muscles.
reflex arcs: a rapid, involuntary motor response to a stimulis. 5 elements: receptor, sensory neuron, integration centre, motor neuron, and effector
autonomic nervous system: the motor division of the PNS that controls visceral activities, with the goal of maintaining internal homeostasis.
thermoreceptors: sensitive to temperature changes.
photoreceptors: respond to light
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR): a system of membranous tubules surrounding each myofibril. It's function is to release and then sequester calcium ions.
chemoreceptors: respond to chemicals - smelled or tasted, or changes in blood chemistry
synergists: aid a prime mover by effecting the same action, stabilizing joints, or preventing undesirable movements.
ball and socket joints: the most freely moving synovial joints universal movement is allowed. e.g the shoulder and hip joints
peripheral nervous system: consists of sensory receptors, nerves conducting impulses to and from the CNS, their associated ganglia and motor endings
antagonists: reverse or oppose the action of another muscle
peripheral nervous system PNS): cranial and spinal nerves
the major types of lipid found in the plasma membrane: cholesterol and phospholipids
saddle joints: e.g joints of the thumbs
somatic (voluntary) system: division of the efferent division. serves skeletal muscles
thalamus: relay station in conduction of sensory impulses to cerebral cortex for interpretation and impulses to and from cerebral motor cortex - involved in memory processing
nerve: a bundle of fibres in the PNS
hypothalamus: cheif integration centre of autonomic nervous system, regulates body temp, food intake, water balance, thirst, biological ryths and drives, regulates hormonal output, endocrine organ, part of the limbic system.
limbic system: mediates emoptional response and involved in memory processing.
mid brain: visual and auditory reflex centre,

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