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Human Biology Exam 3

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What gases does blood carry?
Oxygen, CO2
Blood transfers ____ and ____ from the digestive tract.
Amino acids and carbs
Blood carries ____ around the body.
Hormones
Blood transfers ____.
Heat
What are the three formed elements in the blood?
Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
What two things make up the blood?
Formed elements and plasma
What makes up plasma?
water, dissolved proteins (antibodies)
Categories of WBCs:
Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil, Monocyte, Lymphocyte
Neutrophil
Engulfing (phagocytose) bacteria
Eosinophil
Engulf antibody-antigen complex
Basophil
Release histomine; cause nose to drip/inflammation.
Monocyte
(Monophage) Phagocytose invader or infected cells.
Lymphocyte
T or B cells.
Red blood cells...
- Contain hemoglobin - Bind H2O to iron - No nucleus (no DNA, can't produce proteins) - Limited life span (only last 120 days)
Erythropoetin
Stimulates red bone marrow to produce red blood cells; produce erythropoetin in kidney in response to low blood oxygen.
Removal of red blood cells:
Liver and spleen break down hemoglobin --> bili rubin - yellowish pigment
Blood Type O
Universal donor; no antigen; A, B antibody
Blood Type A
Antigen A; B antibody.
Rh Positive
Has Rh antigen.
Rh Negative
No Rh antigen.
Rh Reaction:
1. Rh- mother is exposed to Rh+ blood from first baby. 2. Mother produces Rh antibody. 3. Second pregnancy - if Rh+ antibodies cross plastic tubes agglutiate treatment injection; prevents mother from producing antibodies against Rh.
Clotting Cascade
Injury: exposes proteins in walls to start cascade; activates Prothrombin into thrombin.
Blood Clot...
Consists of Fibrin, RBCs, platelets; happens quickly to prevent bleeding.
The Immune System's First Line of Defense:
Skin- prevents infection. Secretions- oil, sweat, tears, salivad (some antibacterial)
The Immune System's Second Line of Defense:
Inflammatory Process (Inflammation): Redness, pus, swelling, heat, pain.
Histamine
Triggers inflammatory process (inflammation); activates protective blood proteins.
Complement System
Forms pores in bacterial cell membrane; activated when antibodies are bound to bacteria.
The Immune System's Third Line of Defense:
Cellular response. Starts with Macrophage.
Macrophage
Contains MHC (ID badge); antigen presenting cells - engulfs bacteria/virus, displays proteins from invader.
Steps in Cellular Response:
1. Threat - invader infects body. 2. Macrophage phagocytosis of invaders - displays self (MHC) and antigen. 3. Alert - Macrophage activates Helper T Lymphocyte. Release interleukin 1; Antigens bind B lymphocytes, which bind to Helper T. 4. Alarm - Helper T cell secretes interleukin 2. Causes B cells to divide. 5. Building specific defense - B Cells 6. Defense 7. Continued Surveilance - B Memory Cells. Hang around - respond quickly to second infection.
Colonal Selection
Cell that has appropriate antibody to fight an infection will be stimulated to produce more antibody.
Immune System
Can respond to 1000s of different antigen shapes.
T Cell Pathway
Macrophage engulfs virus - breaks down and displays viral antigen along with MHC
Immunity
- 1st response is weaker. - 2nd response is much stronger. - Prevents illness.
Interferon
Warning molecule that infection is in progress; prevents replication in neighboring cells; attracts Natural Killer Cells - will attack and destroy suspicious-looking cells.
Viral Infections
- Virus consists of protein coat and DNA/RNA core. - Inject DNA/RNA into living cell. - Incorporates DNA into cell nucleus. - Cell now makes viral proteins - make more virus.
HIV
- Helper T cells targeted. - Over time, virus multiplies. - Helper T cell populations fall.
AIDS
Can't fight off simple infections.
HIV Treatments...
- Prevent viral invection. - Cocktails of multiple drugs. - Sloppy DNA/RNA copying (high mutation rate) - Virus becomes resistant to drugs.
Antibiotic Resistance
- Bacteria have developed ways to resist antibiotics. - Overuse of antibiotics has led to more opportunities for resistance. - Bacteria that are most resistant multiply.
Mouth
Saliva; lubricates food - enzymatic digestion (anylase - starch --> sugar)
Esophagus
Carries food from mouth to stomach. Muscular - peristalsis contractions - moves food.
4 Layers of Tubing (Esophagus)
- Interior = lumen - Mucosa - secretes mucus - enzymes - absorption - Submucosa - blood supply - Muscularis - paristalic contractions. - Serosa - Secretes lubricants - tubes slide over one another.
Stomach
Expandable; mixes food with HCl acid (kills invading pathogens); protein digestion - big proteins into peptides; muscles (3) generate wringing motion; pyloric sphincter - opens after mixing completes.
Small Intestine
Primary site of digestion; primary site of absorption; multiple folds (increased surface area, increased absorption, increased digestion)
Villus
Each villus has capillaries - picks up absorbed nutrients
Lacteal
Lymphatic vessel - absorbs fats.
Liver
Produces bile (from breakdown of hemoglobin) - soap.
Gall Bladder
- Stores bile and concentrates. - Connected to small intestine. - Common bile duct - eject bile into first portions of small intestine.
Pancrease
- Secretes enzymes. - Trypsin - breaks down protein. - Anylase - breaks down carbohydrates. - Ribonuclease - breaks down nucleic acids. - Lipase - breaks down lipids (fats). - Source of insulin (control blood sugar).
Hepatic Circulation
Blood from small intestine goes first to liver, then back to heart. Liver controls nutrient concentration in blood.
Large Intestine
- Recovers water. - Concentrates wastes. - Normal bacteria, help digest and recover certain vitamins.
Carbohydrates
320g/day; cereal, bread, pasta.
Glycemic Index
How fast does blood sugar go up. - Want low glycemic index. - Increased blood sugar, increased insulin, increased fat. - Want slow, consistent release. - Whole grains.
Proteins
55g/day; chicken, fish, nuts; essential amino acids - 20 (some cannot be produced by our bodies - meats contain all 20. grains, nuts have some)
Fats
60g/day; dairy, fish, beef; polyunsaturated - good; saturated - bad.
Vitamins
A, B complex, C, D, E.
Minerals
Iron, Calcium, Potassium, Phosphorus.
Important Vitamins:
- A: vision - B complex (thiamine, biotin, niacin, riboflavin): energy metabolism. - D: calcium absorption. - C&E: antioxidants
Vegetables
Excellent source of micronutrients; good source of dietary fiber; other "micronutrients" - lycopenes, flavanoids.
Dietary Recommendations:
- Calcium: decreased risk of Osteoporosis. - Iron: prevent anemia. - Fiber: prevent colon cancer. - Folic Acid: Prevent birth defect. - Whole Milk: Toddler brain development.
Nervous System Functions
- Detect external stimuli (light, sound, etc.) - Stimulate other body tissues (contract muscles, heart rate, digestive, etc.)
Nervous System Inputs
Sensory neurons - afferents.
Nervous System Outputs
Motor Neurons - efferents.
Decision Making Centers
Brain, spinal cord.
Learning
Retain memories of experiences - apply them later.
Rapid Conduction
40-120 m/s.
Central Nervous System
Brain, spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic - controls skeletal muscle, carries in sensory inputs.
Autonomic Nervous System
- Automatic body functions. - Heart rate, digestion, breathing. - Sympathetic - Parasympathetic
Sympathetic Nervous System
Increased heart rate; decreased digestion. Fight or Flight.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Decreased heart rate; increased digestion. Rest-and-Digest.
Spinal Cord
Branches into spinal nerves. 2-way information (sensory, affer; motor, effer)
Sympathetic/Fight or Flight...
Heart rate increased; gut/mouth activity decreased (dry mouth); Pupils dilated.
Parasympathetic/Rest and Digest...
Heart rate decreased; Gut/mouth activity increased (salivation); Pupils constricted.
Brain
- Cushioned and protected by cerebrospinal fluid. - Contained by mininges (infection = meningitis) - Cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem.
Cerebrum
Processes sensory info; sends out commands; association areas store memories.
Cerebellum
Below cerebrum; muscle coordination.
Brain Stem
Control vital functions (heart, respiration); medulla oblongata.
4 Lobes of Cerebrum
- Frontal Lobe - Parietal Lobe - Occipital Lobe - Temporal Lobe
Frontal Lobe of Cerebrum
Motor (muscle) control.
Parietal Lobe of Cerebrum
Touch
Occipital Lobe of Cerebrum
Vision
Temporal Lobe of Cerebrum
Hearing
Neuron
Basic cell of the nervous system.
Nodes of Ranvier
Booster stations
Electrical
Ionic currents - Na+, K+
Dendrites
"Antenna"
Neuron Cell Body
Receives information.
Axon Hillock
Decision Center of neuron.
Synaptic Cleft
Release neurotransmitter.
Axon
Transmits Information.
Neuron Cell Membrane
- Lipid. - Ions can't diffuse across. Have to be transported.
Active Transport
- Na/K ATPase. - Causes Na+ concentration to be high outside of cell (low inside). - Causes K+ concentration to be high inside of cell (low outside). - Causes inside of cell to become negatively charged (lose 1+ charge every time it turns over).
Cell Membrane Potential
Inside of cell negatively charged - 70 mV.
Firing of Electrical Impulse...
Shifts membrane potential - "Action Potential".
Voltage
Membrane potential must reach threshold.
Neurotransmitter
Happens on dendrites
Accumulation of Miniature Potentials...
Can cause threshold to be reached.
Steps in Conducting a Neural Signal:
1. Cell body & dendrites receive signal from upstream neuron, or sensory stimulus. 2. Axon hillock decides whether to fire Action Potential - must reach threshold. 3. Action Potential moves down axon - decreases in strength - boosted by Nodes of Ranvier. 4. Action Potential reaches axon terminal - triggers release of neurotransmitters from vesicles. 5. Neurotransmitters released into Synaptic Cleft. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on either the next neuron, muscle, gland. 6. Receptors open ion channels (neurotransmitter activated channels) - ions flow. - Na+ ions move - excitatory stimulus - makes cell depolarize. - K+ ions move out - inhibitory stimulus makes cell repolarize.
Excitatory
Increased chance that neuron fires an action potential.
Inhibitory
Decreased chance that neuron fires an Action Potential.
Open Voltage
Activated channels. - Depolarize - Na+ moves in.
Abnormal Neurotransmitter Release Leads to Disease:
- Alzheimer's - Depression - Parkinson's
Alzheimer's Disease
Caused by decrease in release of neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
Depression
Norepinepherine, serotonin decreased. Drugs will increase concentration of neurotransmitters in synapse.
Parkinson's Disease
Dopamine decreased; drug l-dopa increases dopamine concentration.
Drugs can function as neurotransmitters because...
- Open ion channels - OR bind to ion channels - prevent neurotransmitter from having effect.
Methamphetamine, Cocaine, Ecstasy
- Stimulates, increase norepinepherine and dopamine activity. - Sympathetic nervous system, addictive. - Ecstasy increases serotonin release, euphoria, then depression.
Consequences of Street Drugs
Heart attack, addiction.
Street "cooks" synthesize drugs from:
Cold tablets (drain cleaner, battery acid)
Marijuana
- Cannabis, delta 9 tetrahydrocannibol - Eurphoria, paranoid schizophrenia, increased appetite. - Smoking increases cancer risk.
Alcohol
- A depressant - Suppresses control pathways (motor control, behavior) - Rate of metabolism (1 drink/hour; 6 drinks = 6 hours of alcohol in blood)
Drunk Driving Stats
- 3 in 10 will have accident w/ a drunk driver. - 50% of drivers w/o a license continue to drive. - Cost more than $100 billion, $70 billion paid by the sober driver. - 80% of population supports ignition interlocks.
Sensory System
Designed to pick up/respond to variety of different stimuli.
Sensory System: pressure/stretch
Touch, Hearing
Sensory System: chemicals
Taste, Smells
Sensory System: light
Vision
Touch
Multiple different receptors, respond to slight variations, light touch, deep pressure, pain, temperature.
Refined Pain
Organ pain shows up in multiple regions of the body, don't have good discrimination - just a few neurons.
Sense of Touch
Stretch of skin - firing of touch neurons, activates ion channels. Action potentials sent to brain.
Hearing
Due to air compression of sound waves.
Sound Waves
Push on and vibrate the ear drum.
Tympanic Membrane
Ear drum
Auditory ossicles
Also vibrate during hearing.
Oval Window
Located underneath the stirrup and connects to the cochlea.
Basilar Membrane
Located inside the ear; vibrates with pressure waves.
A narrow Basilar Membrane senses...
Sounds of higher frequency (up to 20,000 hz)
A wide Basilar Membrane senses...
Sounds of lower frequency (as low as 20 hz)
Carbohydrates are broken down into ______.
Simple Sugars.
Proteins are broken down into ______.
Amino Acids.
Nucleic Acids are broken down into ______.
Nucleotides.
Lipids are broken down into ______.
Fatty Acids.

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