Human Biology Exam 3
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- What gases does blood carry?
- Oxygen, CO2
- Blood transfers ____ and ____ from the digestive tract.
- Amino acids and carbs
- Blood carries ____ around the body.
- Hormones
- Blood transfers ____.
- Heat
- What are the three formed elements in the blood?
- Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
- What two things make up the blood?
- Formed elements and plasma
- What makes up plasma?
- water, dissolved proteins (antibodies)
- Categories of WBCs:
- Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil, Monocyte, Lymphocyte
- Neutrophil
- Engulfing (phagocytose) bacteria
- Eosinophil
- Engulf antibody-antigen complex
- Basophil
- Release histomine; cause nose to drip/inflammation.
- Monocyte
- (Monophage) Phagocytose invader or infected cells.
- Lymphocyte
- T or B cells.
- Red blood cells...
- - Contain hemoglobin - Bind H2O to iron - No nucleus (no DNA, can't produce proteins) - Limited life span (only last 120 days)
- Erythropoetin
- Stimulates red bone marrow to produce red blood cells; produce erythropoetin in kidney in response to low blood oxygen.
- Removal of red blood cells:
- Liver and spleen break down hemoglobin --> bili rubin - yellowish pigment
- Blood Type O
- Universal donor; no antigen; A, B antibody
- Blood Type A
- Antigen A; B antibody.
- Rh Positive
- Has Rh antigen.
- Rh Negative
- No Rh antigen.
- Rh Reaction:
- 1. Rh- mother is exposed to Rh+ blood from first baby. 2. Mother produces Rh antibody. 3. Second pregnancy - if Rh+ antibodies cross plastic tubes agglutiate treatment injection; prevents mother from producing antibodies against Rh.
- Clotting Cascade
- Injury: exposes proteins in walls to start cascade; activates Prothrombin into thrombin.
- Blood Clot...
- Consists of Fibrin, RBCs, platelets; happens quickly to prevent bleeding.
- The Immune System's First Line of Defense:
- Skin- prevents infection. Secretions- oil, sweat, tears, salivad (some antibacterial)
- The Immune System's Second Line of Defense:
- Inflammatory Process (Inflammation): Redness, pus, swelling, heat, pain.
- Histamine
- Triggers inflammatory process (inflammation); activates protective blood proteins.
- Complement System
- Forms pores in bacterial cell membrane; activated when antibodies are bound to bacteria.
- The Immune System's Third Line of Defense:
- Cellular response. Starts with Macrophage.
- Macrophage
- Contains MHC (ID badge); antigen presenting cells - engulfs bacteria/virus, displays proteins from invader.
- Steps in Cellular Response:
- 1. Threat - invader infects body. 2. Macrophage phagocytosis of invaders - displays self (MHC) and antigen. 3. Alert - Macrophage activates Helper T Lymphocyte. Release interleukin 1; Antigens bind B lymphocytes, which bind to Helper T. 4. Alarm - Helper T cell secretes interleukin 2. Causes B cells to divide. 5. Building specific defense - B Cells 6. Defense 7. Continued Surveilance - B Memory Cells. Hang around - respond quickly to second infection.
- Colonal Selection
- Cell that has appropriate antibody to fight an infection will be stimulated to produce more antibody.
- Immune System
- Can respond to 1000s of different antigen shapes.
- T Cell Pathway
- Macrophage engulfs virus - breaks down and displays viral antigen along with MHC
- Immunity
- - 1st response is weaker. - 2nd response is much stronger. - Prevents illness.
- Interferon
- Warning molecule that infection is in progress; prevents replication in neighboring cells; attracts Natural Killer Cells - will attack and destroy suspicious-looking cells.
- Viral Infections
- - Virus consists of protein coat and DNA/RNA core. - Inject DNA/RNA into living cell. - Incorporates DNA into cell nucleus. - Cell now makes viral proteins - make more virus.
- HIV
- - Helper T cells targeted. - Over time, virus multiplies. - Helper T cell populations fall.
- AIDS
- Can't fight off simple infections.
- HIV Treatments...
- - Prevent viral invection. - Cocktails of multiple drugs. - Sloppy DNA/RNA copying (high mutation rate) - Virus becomes resistant to drugs.
- Antibiotic Resistance
- - Bacteria have developed ways to resist antibiotics. - Overuse of antibiotics has led to more opportunities for resistance. - Bacteria that are most resistant multiply.
- Mouth
- Saliva; lubricates food - enzymatic digestion (anylase - starch --> sugar)
- Esophagus
- Carries food from mouth to stomach. Muscular - peristalsis contractions - moves food.
- 4 Layers of Tubing (Esophagus)
- - Interior = lumen - Mucosa - secretes mucus - enzymes - absorption - Submucosa - blood supply - Muscularis - paristalic contractions. - Serosa - Secretes lubricants - tubes slide over one another.
- Stomach
- Expandable; mixes food with HCl acid (kills invading pathogens); protein digestion - big proteins into peptides; muscles (3) generate wringing motion; pyloric sphincter - opens after mixing completes.
- Small Intestine
- Primary site of digestion; primary site of absorption; multiple folds (increased surface area, increased absorption, increased digestion)
- Villus
- Each villus has capillaries - picks up absorbed nutrients
- Lacteal
- Lymphatic vessel - absorbs fats.
- Liver
- Produces bile (from breakdown of hemoglobin) - soap.
- Gall Bladder
- - Stores bile and concentrates. - Connected to small intestine. - Common bile duct - eject bile into first portions of small intestine.
- Pancrease
- - Secretes enzymes. - Trypsin - breaks down protein. - Anylase - breaks down carbohydrates. - Ribonuclease - breaks down nucleic acids. - Lipase - breaks down lipids (fats). - Source of insulin (control blood sugar).
- Hepatic Circulation
- Blood from small intestine goes first to liver, then back to heart. Liver controls nutrient concentration in blood.
- Large Intestine
- - Recovers water. - Concentrates wastes. - Normal bacteria, help digest and recover certain vitamins.
- Carbohydrates
- 320g/day; cereal, bread, pasta.
- Glycemic Index
- How fast does blood sugar go up. - Want low glycemic index. - Increased blood sugar, increased insulin, increased fat. - Want slow, consistent release. - Whole grains.
- Proteins
- 55g/day; chicken, fish, nuts; essential amino acids - 20 (some cannot be produced by our bodies - meats contain all 20. grains, nuts have some)
- Fats
- 60g/day; dairy, fish, beef; polyunsaturated - good; saturated - bad.
- Vitamins
- A, B complex, C, D, E.
- Minerals
- Iron, Calcium, Potassium, Phosphorus.
- Important Vitamins:
- - A: vision - B complex (thiamine, biotin, niacin, riboflavin): energy metabolism. - D: calcium absorption. - C&E: antioxidants
- Vegetables
- Excellent source of micronutrients; good source of dietary fiber; other "micronutrients" - lycopenes, flavanoids.
- Dietary Recommendations:
- - Calcium: decreased risk of Osteoporosis. - Iron: prevent anemia. - Fiber: prevent colon cancer. - Folic Acid: Prevent birth defect. - Whole Milk: Toddler brain development.
- Nervous System Functions
- - Detect external stimuli (light, sound, etc.) - Stimulate other body tissues (contract muscles, heart rate, digestive, etc.)
- Nervous System Inputs
- Sensory neurons - afferents.
- Nervous System Outputs
- Motor Neurons - efferents.
- Decision Making Centers
- Brain, spinal cord.
- Learning
- Retain memories of experiences - apply them later.
- Rapid Conduction
- 40-120 m/s.
- Central Nervous System
- Brain, spinal cord.
- Peripheral Nervous System
- Somatic - controls skeletal muscle, carries in sensory inputs.
- Autonomic Nervous System
- - Automatic body functions. - Heart rate, digestion, breathing. - Sympathetic - Parasympathetic
- Sympathetic Nervous System
- Increased heart rate; decreased digestion. Fight or Flight.
- Parasympathetic Nervous System
- Decreased heart rate; increased digestion. Rest-and-Digest.
- Spinal Cord
- Branches into spinal nerves. 2-way information (sensory, affer; motor, effer)
- Sympathetic/Fight or Flight...
- Heart rate increased; gut/mouth activity decreased (dry mouth); Pupils dilated.
- Parasympathetic/Rest and Digest...
- Heart rate decreased; Gut/mouth activity increased (salivation); Pupils constricted.
- Brain
- - Cushioned and protected by cerebrospinal fluid. - Contained by mininges (infection = meningitis) - Cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem.
- Cerebrum
- Processes sensory info; sends out commands; association areas store memories.
- Cerebellum
- Below cerebrum; muscle coordination.
- Brain Stem
- Control vital functions (heart, respiration); medulla oblongata.
- 4 Lobes of Cerebrum
- - Frontal Lobe - Parietal Lobe - Occipital Lobe - Temporal Lobe
- Frontal Lobe of Cerebrum
- Motor (muscle) control.
- Parietal Lobe of Cerebrum
- Touch
- Occipital Lobe of Cerebrum
- Vision
- Temporal Lobe of Cerebrum
- Hearing
- Neuron
- Basic cell of the nervous system.
- Nodes of Ranvier
- Booster stations
- Electrical
- Ionic currents - Na+, K+
- Dendrites
- "Antenna"
- Neuron Cell Body
- Receives information.
- Axon Hillock
- Decision Center of neuron.
- Synaptic Cleft
- Release neurotransmitter.
- Axon
- Transmits Information.
- Neuron Cell Membrane
- - Lipid. - Ions can't diffuse across. Have to be transported.
- Active Transport
- - Na/K ATPase. - Causes Na+ concentration to be high outside of cell (low inside). - Causes K+ concentration to be high inside of cell (low outside). - Causes inside of cell to become negatively charged (lose 1+ charge every time it turns over).
- Cell Membrane Potential
- Inside of cell negatively charged - 70 mV.
- Firing of Electrical Impulse...
- Shifts membrane potential - "Action Potential".
- Voltage
- Membrane potential must reach threshold.
- Neurotransmitter
- Happens on dendrites
- Accumulation of Miniature Potentials...
- Can cause threshold to be reached.
- Steps in Conducting a Neural Signal:
- 1. Cell body & dendrites receive signal from upstream neuron, or sensory stimulus. 2. Axon hillock decides whether to fire Action Potential - must reach threshold. 3. Action Potential moves down axon - decreases in strength - boosted by Nodes of Ranvier. 4. Action Potential reaches axon terminal - triggers release of neurotransmitters from vesicles. 5. Neurotransmitters released into Synaptic Cleft. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on either the next neuron, muscle, gland. 6. Receptors open ion channels (neurotransmitter activated channels) - ions flow. - Na+ ions move - excitatory stimulus - makes cell depolarize. - K+ ions move out - inhibitory stimulus makes cell repolarize.
- Excitatory
- Increased chance that neuron fires an action potential.
- Inhibitory
- Decreased chance that neuron fires an Action Potential.
- Open Voltage
- Activated channels. - Depolarize - Na+ moves in.
- Abnormal Neurotransmitter Release Leads to Disease:
- - Alzheimer's - Depression - Parkinson's
- Alzheimer's Disease
- Caused by decrease in release of neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
- Depression
- Norepinepherine, serotonin decreased. Drugs will increase concentration of neurotransmitters in synapse.
- Parkinson's Disease
- Dopamine decreased; drug l-dopa increases dopamine concentration.
- Drugs can function as neurotransmitters because...
- - Open ion channels - OR bind to ion channels - prevent neurotransmitter from having effect.
- Methamphetamine, Cocaine, Ecstasy
- - Stimulates, increase norepinepherine and dopamine activity. - Sympathetic nervous system, addictive. - Ecstasy increases serotonin release, euphoria, then depression.
- Consequences of Street Drugs
- Heart attack, addiction.
- Street "cooks" synthesize drugs from:
- Cold tablets (drain cleaner, battery acid)
- Marijuana
- - Cannabis, delta 9 tetrahydrocannibol - Eurphoria, paranoid schizophrenia, increased appetite. - Smoking increases cancer risk.
- Alcohol
- - A depressant - Suppresses control pathways (motor control, behavior) - Rate of metabolism (1 drink/hour; 6 drinks = 6 hours of alcohol in blood)
- Drunk Driving Stats
- - 3 in 10 will have accident w/ a drunk driver. - 50% of drivers w/o a license continue to drive. - Cost more than $100 billion, $70 billion paid by the sober driver. - 80% of population supports ignition interlocks.
- Sensory System
- Designed to pick up/respond to variety of different stimuli.
- Sensory System: pressure/stretch
- Touch, Hearing
- Sensory System: chemicals
- Taste, Smells
- Sensory System: light
- Vision
- Touch
- Multiple different receptors, respond to slight variations, light touch, deep pressure, pain, temperature.
- Refined Pain
- Organ pain shows up in multiple regions of the body, don't have good discrimination - just a few neurons.
- Sense of Touch
- Stretch of skin - firing of touch neurons, activates ion channels. Action potentials sent to brain.
- Hearing
- Due to air compression of sound waves.
- Sound Waves
- Push on and vibrate the ear drum.
- Tympanic Membrane
- Ear drum
- Auditory ossicles
- Also vibrate during hearing.
- Oval Window
- Located underneath the stirrup and connects to the cochlea.
- Basilar Membrane
- Located inside the ear; vibrates with pressure waves.
- A narrow Basilar Membrane senses...
- Sounds of higher frequency (up to 20,000 hz)
- A wide Basilar Membrane senses...
- Sounds of lower frequency (as low as 20 hz)
- Carbohydrates are broken down into ______.
- Simple Sugars.
- Proteins are broken down into ______.
- Amino Acids.
- Nucleic Acids are broken down into ______.
- Nucleotides.
- Lipids are broken down into ______.
- Fatty Acids.