Stonecipher
final study guide
Terms
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- population
- all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study. (note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.
- Insomnia
- recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
- temporal lobe
- the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.
- limbic system
- A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex Includes the hippocampus amygdale, and the hypothalamus
- Infant social attachment
- can be described as either secure attachment, which is behavior, demonstrated from infants with sensitive, caring mothers or insecure attachment demonstrated by infants with neglectful and/or insensitive mothers
- sleep rhythm
- Stage 1 - Stage 4, back up to REM
- Hallucinogens
- distort perceptions (LSD, THC marijuana)
- Major Sleep Disorders
- Insomnia, Sleep Apnea, Narcolepsy and Night Terrors
- Harlow's monkeys
- through scientific experiment, these monkeys displayed the bond attachment associated with Social development showing the need for physical contact as the monkeys clung to the softer artificial "mother" when scared, feeding and when combined with other factors such as warmth, rocking and feeding became even more appealing.
- identical twins
- Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, two genetically identical organisms.
- technologies used to study the brain
- EEG, MRI, PET, CT
- permissive
- parents submit to the child's desires, make few demands and use little punishment
- Edward Thorndike's law of effect
- Rewarded behavior is likely to recur.
- mirror aware
- child self-concept: 15-18 mo
- Scientific methods
- Descriptive, Correlation, Experimental
- operational definition
- a statement of the procedures (operations used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
- parietal lobe
- the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
- Kohlberg's Preconventional morality
- Before age 9, focused on self-interest. -to obey to avoid punishment or gain concrete reward
- Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory
- Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational
- temperament
- A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.
- fetus
- what to call this stage of prenatal development -- 9 weeks to delivery
- hormones
- chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, produced in one tissue and affect another. When they act on the brain, they influence our interest in sex, food and aggression
- somatic nervous system
- the division of the nervous system that helps in the voluntary controls of our skeletal muscles
- Hospice
- a supportive agency offering care and counseling to dying patients and their families; a program consisting of pallative and supportive services. provides psychological, financial, spiritual and social counseling. Main objective is to allow patient to die with dignity.
- medulla
- The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
- extinction
- the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
- Behavioral
- the branch of psychology that studies how we learn observable responses
- Parenting Styles
- authoritative, authoritarian, permissive
- Content and Function of Dreams
- Dreams are the royal road to the unconscious thought Freud
- Piaget's Sensorimotor stage
- Experiencing the world through sensers and actions (looking touching mouthing and grasping)
- Erikson's Identity vs. role confusion
- Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are.
- Observational learning
- Learning by observing others
- Shaping
- an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
- hypothalamus
- This small but important structure that lies below the thalamus helps keep the body's internal environment in a steady state by regulating thirst, hunger and body temperature and influences experiences of pleasurable reward
- Serotonin
- neurotransmitter which affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal
- Maslow
- Humanist psychologist who developed a pyramid representing heirarchy of human needs.
- psychology
- the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
- Punishment
- application of a unpleasant stimulus (an aversive) tends to decrease the frequency of the preceding response May be "effective"...but has serious side effects:.
- Latent content
- underlying or deeper, hidden meaning of a dream
- generalization
- the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
- endocrine
- a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
- Neuroscience
- the branch of psychology that tells how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences
- Erikson's Initiative vs guilt
- Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to become independent
- X chromosome
- the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two; males have one. An ___ chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
- Dopamine
- neurotransmitter which influences movement, learning, attention and emotion
- infantile amnesia
- our memories generally do not predate our third birthday
- Kohlberg's Conventional morality
- early adolesscence, morality usually evolves to level that cares for others and upholds laws and social rules simply because they are the laws and rules.
- nature-nurture
- the controversy over the relative contributions of biology and experience.
- myelin sheath
- fatty covering of the axon of some neurons, helps speed neural impulses
- corpus callosum
- the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
- Circadian rhythm (circa dias)
- The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
- placebo
- Latin for "I shall please" experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.
- negative reinforcement
- reducing or removing an unpleasant stimulus
- hypothesis
- a testable prediction often implied by a theory.
- Cognitive
- the branch of psychology that tells how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information
- secondary reinforcer or conditioned reinforcer
- a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer through learning such as money, good grades
- PET
- positron emission tomography a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.
- B.F. Skinner
- 1904 - 1990 -most influential and controversial figure. Developed behavioral technology and designed a famous operant chamber
- object permanence
- the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
- positive reinforcement
- presenting a pleasant stimulus
- critical period
- just after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
- Classical conditioning
- a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning
- Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory
- Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operations and Formal Operations
- amygdala
- Two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion. A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.
- Y chromosome
- The sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an _____chromosome form the mother, it produces a male child.
- gender
- In psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female
- Chromosomes
- threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
- sensory cortex
- the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
- Pavlov
- experimented with dogs to develop classical conditioning theory
- Rogers
- Humanist psychologist who developed client-centered therapy and coined the term "unconditional positive regard."
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
- physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In server cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions
- Fixed interval
- equal time elapse between reinforcer
- axon
- passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands
- primary reinforcer
- an innately reinforcing stimulus such as one that satisfies a biological need
- gender role
- A set of expected behaviors for males or for females.
- latent learning
- learning that occurs but that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
- DNA
- A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
- pituitary
- the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, this gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
- Watson
- behaviorist who worked with "Little Albert."
- plasticity
- the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development.
- Sensation
- detect physical energy in the environment and encode as neural signals. (bottom-up processing)
- gender identity
- one's sense of being male or female
- Fixed ratio
- reinforcer after a set # of responses
- MRI
- magnetic resonance imaging a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain.
- Functions of sleep
- restorative to exhaustive brain tissue and helpful in consolidating memories, knitting together information
- Variable ratio
- reinforcer after unpredictable # of responses
- authoritarian
- parents (impose/ dictate) rules and expect obedience in a militant fashion
- testosterone
- The most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional _________ in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.
- Erikson's Generativity vs. Stagnation
- in middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose
- Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory 8 Stages
- Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy), Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt , Competence vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence),Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, Integrity vs. Despair (late life review)
- Evolutionary
- the branch of psychology that tells how the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one's genes
- motor cortex
- the area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
- US
- in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically -triggers a response
- Erikson's Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
- Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they question their abilities
- CT
- Computed tomography is a medical imaging method employing tomography. Digital geometry processing is used to generate a three-dimensional image of the inside of an object from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken around a single axis of rotation. The word "tomography" is derived from the Greek tomos (slice) and graphein (to write).(known as a CAT scan)
- Narcolepsy
- a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep often at inopportune times.
- Peripheral Nervous System
- the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
- independent variable
- the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
- structures of the brain (be able to locate on a diagram)
- cerebral cortex, frontal lobe, motor cortex, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe, sensory cortex,
- autonomic nervous system
- the division of the nervous system that controls our glands and the muscles of our internal organs
- replication
- repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstance.
- Erikson's Intimacy vs. isolation
- Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated
- Operant conditioning
- we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence and thus repeat acts followed by good results
- dependent variable
- the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the other variable.
- culture
- The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
- Broca's area
- controls language expression-an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
- sympathetic nervous system
- the division of the nervous system that arouses the body and mobilizes energy in stressful situations
- psychiatry
- a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.
- EEG
- electroencephalogram amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
- Elisabeth Kubler-Ross
- Psychologist who theorized the terminally ill progress through sequence of: Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance
- double-blind procedure
- an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
- occipital lobe
- the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas.
- sensory neurons
- neurons that carry incoming info from the sense receptors to the central nervous system.
- Piaget's Formal operational
- abstract reasoning, abstract logic and potential for mature moral reasoning
- Perception
- selecting, organizing, interpreting meaningful objects & events.(top-down processing)
- Depressants
- depress neural functioning (alcohol, barbiturates, opiates)
- Kohlberg's Postconventional morality
- developed in people that contain abstract reasoning in formal operational thought and can affirm people's agreed-upon rights or following self-defined, basic ethical principles
- dendrites
- the bushy branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward a cell body
- endorphins
- morphine within, neurotransmitter (pain and pleasure).
- Piaget's Preoperational stage
- representing things with words and images; use intuitive rather than logical reasoning
- Lawrence Kohlberg
- contends that moral thinking progresses through a series of stages: Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional
- Erikson
- developed a theory of eight stages of psychosocial development.
- Partial Reinforcement
- reinforcing a response only part of the time
- synapse
- the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dentrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
- Experimental
- the method used to explore cause and effect with manipulation or one or more factors (independent variables) and using random assignment
- Freud
- developed psychoanalytic theory.
- Wernicke's area
- controls language reception -a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in left temporal lobe
- Night Terrors
- a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, this disorder occurs during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and is seldom remembered
- egocentrism
- in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
- cortical areas involved in aphasia
- Broca's area, Wernicke's area, Angular gyrus, Motor cortex, Visual cortex
- Central Nervous System
- brain and spinal cord the
- cerebral cortex
- looks like a walnut and is the bulk of the brain. The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center
- Social-Cultural
- the branch of psychology that tells how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures
- hindsight bias
- the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have forseen it. (I knew it all along syndrome)
- discrimination
- in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
- crystallized intelligence
- one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.
- motor neurons
- Neurons that carry outgoing info from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.
- thalamus
- The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
- fluid intelligence
- one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.
- Reinforcer
- any event that increases the frequency of the preceding response
- Jung
- neo-Freudian, psychodamic psychologist, developed theory of the "collective unconscious."
- Erikson's Competence vs. inferiority
- Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to task, or they feel inferior
- natural selection
- The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
- theory
- an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
- mutation
- A random error in gene replication that leads to a change.
- embryo
- what to call the secondary stage of prenatal development (2 to 9 weeks)
- Sleep Apnea
- a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
- Correlation
- the method used to detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another and compute statistical association, sometimes among survey responses
- parasympathetic nervous system
- the division of the nervous system that causes calms the body and conserves it's energy
- random sample or assignment
- a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
- Erikson's Integrity vs. despair
- When reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
- gender identity
- One's sense of being male or female.
- modeling
- Observe & imitate a specific behavior... may be latent learning
- the major divisions of the nervous system
- CNS, PNS, somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system sympathetic nervous system
- cerebellum
- the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
- less than half
- the number of fertilized eggs that survive
- Continuous reinforcement
- Constantly reinforced each time behavior occurs
- conservation
- the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume and number remain the same despite changes int the forms of objects
- cognitive map
- a mental representation of the layout of one's environment.
- Hypnosis
- accepted uses, but can be problematic in memory retrieval
- neurotransmitters
- Chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
- Sleep Stage #1
- alpha waves, images like hallucinations (hypnogogic)
- Wilhelm Wundt
- established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany
- Manifest content
- story line of a dream
- brainstem
- The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the _________ is responsible for automatic survival functions
- Stimulants
- stimulate neural functioning (caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines)
- CS
- in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to trigger a conditioned response
- extrinsic motivation
- a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
- Acetylcholine
- neurotransmitter which enables muscle action, learning and memory
- frontal lobe
- part of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead involved in speaking and muscle movements and making plans and judgments
- reticular formation
- A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
- hippocampus
- a structure in the limbic system linked to memory
- lesion
- tissue destruction. a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
- Piaget's Concrete Operational stage
- thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations
- Descriptive
- the method used to observe and record behavior without manipulation (survey, case study, naturalistic observation)
- Intrinsic motivation
- a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
- Illusory correlation
- the perception of a relationship where none exists.
- aphasia
- the impaired use of language
- genes
- The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.
- Erikson's Trust vs. mistrust
- if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
- Spontaneous recovery
- the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
- CR
- in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
- Sleep Stage #3-4
- large, slow delta waves; Pattern repeats every 90 minutes
- authoritative
- parents are both demanding and responsive by exerting control, setting rules, enforcing them and also explaining the reasons. They also encourage discussions with older children and allow exceptions when making rules.
- zygote
- what to call the primary stage of prenatal development (up to the first two weeks after conception)
- Variable interval
- reinforce first response after varying time lapse
- Psychodynamic or Psychoanalytic
- the branch of psychology that tells how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts
- Sigmund Freud
- famed personality theorist and therapist whose controversial ideas influenced humanity's self-understanding. Thought dreams were a wish-fulfillment through latent content.
- UR
- in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus such as salivation when food is in the mouth
- side effects of Punishment
- increased aggression, fear of punisher, even when it suppresses undesired behavior, may not, guide toward the more desired behavior
- teratogens
- agents such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm