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ETS: (aerobic) - (electron transport chain) a series of proteins in which the high-energy electrons from the Krebs cycle are used to convert ADP into ATP, creates the most energy, occurs in mitochondria, makes 36 units of ATP
why cells divide: repair, growth, and reproduce
alcohol fermentation: done by yeast and some kinds of bacteria, these microorganisms convert sugars into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. Alcoholic fermentation begins after glucose enters the cell. The glucose is broken down into Pyruvic acid. This Pyruvic acid is then converted to CO2, ethanol, and energy for the cell. Humans have long taken advantage of this process in making bread, beer, and wine.
products: 6H2O and 6CO2 and 38 ATP molecules
protein synthesis: functions: a. mRNA (messenger RNA)- carries copies of instructions for the assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to the rest of the cellb. tRNA (transfer RNA)- transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis c. rRNA (ribosomal RNA)- decoded RNA into amino acids
prokaryotic: no nucleus, smaller, less complex, ex. Bacteria, virus
interphase: period of the cell cycle between cell divisions
allele: version of information in genes
species: 2 animals that can reproduce, make young, and create fertile offspring
secondary succession: the way community interactions restore an ecosystem to its original condition (Ex: California landscape after a wildfire)
metaphase: second phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell
directional selection: from of natural selection in which entire curve moves; individuals at one end of curve have higher fitness that those in middle or at other end
kreb's cycle: (aerobic) - second stage of cellular respiration in which Pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions, occurs in mitochondria
homologous structures: structures that are anatomically similar and show a common evolutionary origin and pattern of development
competition: when organisms attempt to use an ecological resource in the same place at the same time
energy pyramid: shows the relative amount of energy available at each trophic level
patterns of evolution: 1. Extinction/Mass Extinction- the disappearance of a species from all or part of its range, 2. Coevolution- the evolution of species in responses to changes in each other
nucleus: the control center of the cell, contains DNA, and chromosomes (instructions)
trophic level: step in a food web or food chain
Cystic fibrosis: recessive version
anaerobic: process that does not require oxygen
tropical rainforest: abiotic-hot and wet year-round; thin, nutrient-poor soils; biotic- broad-leaved evergreen trees, ferns, orchids, sloths, tapirs, anteaters, monkeys, toucans, parrots, snakes
acid rain: cause= acidity of rain, effect=pH in stone changes
cell membrane: the "gate-keeper", regulates what goes in and out of cell
non-disjunction: prophase1, and metaphase1, too many or not enough chromosomes (ex. Down syndrome, Turner's syndrome)
comparative embryology: similarity in embryos are taken to be evidence of common ancestry
desert: abiotic- low precipitation; variable temperatures; soils rich in minerals but poor in organic material; biotic- cacti and other succulents, mountain lions, gray foxes, tortoises, rattlesnakes, and lizards, owls, hawks
savanna: abiotic- warm temperatures, seasonal rainfall, compact soil, frequent fires set by lightning; biotic- tall, perennial grasses, lions, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, zebras, giraffes
cytokinesis in plant cells: a structure known as the cell plate forms midway between the divided nuclei, as shown below, the cell plate gradually develops into a separating membrane, a cell wall then begins to appear in the cell plate
chromosome: strand of DNA
cytokinesis in animal cells: the cell membrane is drawn inward until the cytoplasm is pinched into two nearly equal parts, each part contains its own nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles
structure of nucleic acid: 1. sub-unit= nucleotide 2. nucleotide made of phosphate, nitrogenous base, and 5 carbon sugar
stabilizing selection: form of natural selection by which the center of the curve remains in its current position; occurs when individuals near the center of curve have higher fitness then those at either end
cytoskeleton: helps cell maintain its shape and protects cell, contained within cytoplasm
Mendelian Genetics (4 things): 1. Principle of Dominance (one trait is stronger) 2. Principle of Segregation (2 units separate during meiosis) 3. Principle of Independent Assortment (units separate independently from each other) 4. each trait controlled by 2 units (one from mom and one from dad)
aerobic: process that requires oxygen
proteins: Elements: nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (and sometimes sulfur) Importance: control the rate of reactions and regulations of the cell process; form bones and muscle; transport substances in or out of cells to fight disease Subunits: amino acids Examples: alanine and glycine and serine; meats, milk
fossil record: (fossils are remains and traces of organisms)/ geologic time scale a. carbon 14 dating (helps date objects up to 40,000 years old)/half life (time it takes for half the radioactive atoms in a sample of the element to decay to a stable end product)
Darwin: Theory of Natural Selection: a. Variations among species exist b. Organisms produce more offspring than can survive c. Nature selects those variations best adapt to the environment for survival d. Speciation- the development of new species over time
lipids: Elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Importance: to store energy and used as water proof coverings Subunits: fatty acids and glycerol Examples: steroids, canola oil, olive oil (cooking oils)
ATP syntheses: large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP (form of energy)
eukarya: Protists- eukaryotic, unicellular, auto/heterotroph, cell membrane ,Fungi- eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotroph, contain cell wall, Plants- eukaryotic, multicellular, autotroph, use photosynthesis, contain cell wall, Animals- eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotroph, have cell membrane
crossing over: an equal exchange of chromosomal material that occurs in prophase 1
fermentation: any cell can do it, it's a primitive method, it doesn't require mitochondria or oxygen, it makes small but steady amounts of energy in form of ATP
cell wall: only in plant cells (the very outside of a plant cell
diffusion: movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration ex. Perfume in air, sugar in coffee
virus: follows all steps but is not made of cells, has to take over another cell to exist and continue
binomial nomenclature: genus and species (general name and specific name)
cytoplasm: jelly like material, where most of chemical reactions take place, made of mostly water
primary succession: succession occurring where no soil exists (Ex: Mt. St. Helen after an eruption)
nucleic acid: Elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus (CHONP) Importance: store and transmit hereditary and genetic info; contain instructions for the body Subunits: nucleotides Examples: DNA, RNA; 5 carbon sugar, phosphorus group, nitrogenous base
levels of biological evolution: individual, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere
lactic acid fermentation: biological process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and the metabolic waste product lactic acid, it is a form of fermentation that occurs in some bacteria and animal cells in the absence of oxygen caused by some fungi and bacteria, the presence of lactic acid, produced during the lactic acid fermentation is responsible for the sour taste and for the improved microbiological stability and safety of the food.
genetic drift: is the evolutionary process of change in the allele frequencies of a population from one generation to the next due to the phenomena of probability in which purely chance events determine which alleles (variants of a gene) within a reproductive population will be carried forward while others disappear
pyramid of numbers: shows the relative number of individual organisms at each trophic level
protein synthesis: replication: copying process by which a cell duplicates its DNA
cilia: organelle found in eukaryotic cells, move cell or other particles across surface
Huntington's disease: dominant version
biological magnification: DDT, Mercury) cause= increase in concentration of toxic substances within each successive link in the food chain effect= animals die from toxins
habitat destruction: causes= fires, deforestation, effect=animals without homes
active transport: when cells must move materials in opposite direction-against a concentration gradient, requires a lot of energy: Pinocytosis- cell drinking, Phagocytosis- cell eating, Exocytosis- removing material
haploid: term used to refer to a cell that contains only a single set of chromosomes and therefore only a single set of genes (half original number)
evolution: change in a kind of organism over time; process by which modern organism have descended from ancient organisms
ecology: scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment
bacteria: unicellular, prokaryotic, auto/heterotroph, everywhere on the planet
Lamarck's theory: Inheritance of acquired characteristics
dihybrid: mating between two individuals, both of whom are heterozygous for the two genes
tundra: abiotic- strong winds, low precipitation; short and soggy summers, long, cold, and dark winters, poorly developed soils, permafrost; biotic- ground-hugging plants such as mosses, a few resident birds and mammals that can withstand the harsh conditions, Arctic foxes
comparative biochemistry: the more closely related two organisms are the more similar their cell biochemistry
temperate deciduous forest: abiotic- cold to moderate winters; warm summers, year-round precipitation, fertile soils; biotic- broadleaf deciduous trees, deer, black bears, bobcats, turkeys, squirrels
photosynthesis reactants and products: reactants= 6H2O + 6CO2 + sunlight products= C6H12O6 + 6CO2
greenhouse effect/global warming: cause= light energy, effect=heat energy is created (main greenhouse gases= carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane)
protein synthesis: translation: decoding of a mRNA message into a polypeptide chain (message is RNA is used to form a protein), occurs in cytoplasm
lysosome: breaks down and recycles material with water
difference between DNA and RNA: DNA: deoxyribose sugar, AT, CG, Remains in the nucleus; RNA: ribose sugar,AU, CG, Single-stranded helix, Found in nucleus and cytoplasm
taiga: abiotic- long, cold winters, short, mild summers, moderate precipitation, high humidity, acidic, nutrient-poor soils; biotic- needleleaf coniferous trees such as spruce and fir, lynxes and timber wolves, moose
biotic factors of the environment: biological influence on organisms within an ecosystem, these include the entire living cast of characters with which an organism might interact, including birds, trees, mushrooms, and bacteria- in other words, the ecological community
ribosomes: protein factories, composed of RNA and protein enzymes
Hemophilia: sex-linked version
edoplasmic reticulum: "streets", transports chemicals between cells and within cells
natural selection: process by which favorable heritable traits become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms, and unfavorable heritable traits become less common
centriole: (only in animal cells) located near the nucleus and helps to organize cell division
ozone hole: cause= global warming, effect= CO2 blanket becomes too thick and Earth becomes hotter
predation: an interaction in which one organism captures and feeds on another organism
archaea: prokaryotic, unicellular, heterotroph, live in extreme environments conditions (ex. hot, salty, excessive methane gas)
Seven steps of life: 1. Made of units called cells 2. Respond to stimuli 3. Acquire and use resources from the environment (solids, liquids, gasses, etc 4. Maintain a balance, homeostasis (like temperature) 5. Grow 6. Reproduce (budding, fission) 7. Evolve
biogeochemical cycles: process in which elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to another and from one part of the biosphere to another ex: carbon cycle, water cycle
telophase: fourth and final phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes begin to disperse into a tangle of dense material
protein synthesis: transcription: process in which part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA is copied into a complementary sequence of RNA, occurs in nucleus
chloroplast: double layered, site for photosynthesis, only in plant cells
biomass pyramid: represents the amount of living organic material at each trophic level
community interactions: various forms of symbiosis
golgi: packaging chemicals into vesicle, formed from stacks of flattened sacs of unit membrane, vesicles pinch of edges, stores chemicals
prophase: first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus
vesicles: stores and transports substances
osmosis: movement of water from high concentration to low concentration across a membrane ex. Carrots in water overnight (water gets in)
monohybrid: crosses between two individuals that are heterozygous for a single trait or gene
gene: sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and thus determines a trait
homologous chromosomes: chromosomes that each has a corresponding chromosome from the opposite-sex parent (same size chromosomes, one from mother, and one from father)
DNA replication: 1. happens during interphase and is semi conservative (way DNA replicates itself to make sure there are no mistakes) 2. purpose of DNA replication is to ensure continuity of hereditary traits
reactants: glucose and oxygen
eukaryotic: complex, nucleus, larger, ex. Plants, protests, animals, and fungus
vacuoles: storage unit, stores water and other various chemicals, takes up 90% of cell
chromosome mutations: take place when the number of chromosomes changes or when structural changes occur in the chromosomes
mitochondria: Produce heat and energy for the cell, glucose is fuel, there are more in muscle and brain cells, children only inherit mother's mitochondria, they have inhuman DNA, are the size of prokaryotic cells
co-dominance: In cats, black (B) is co-dominant to white (W) fur, and gray is recessive
disruptive selection: form of natural selection in which single curve splits into two; occurs when individuals at upper and lower ends of curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle
abiotic factors of the environment: physical, or nonliving, factors that shape ecosystems; for example, the climate of an area includes abiotic factors such as temperature, precipitation, and humidity
analogous structures: structures in different animals that have similar function but are different in evolutionary origin and pattern of development
Non-Disjunction of chromosomes: means not separating properly during meiosis, gamete either gets two few or too many chromosomes Turner's syndrome (monosomy X), Down syndrome (trisomy 21), Klinefelter's syndrome (xxy)
incomplete dominance: ex. In roses red is incompletely dominant over white. This means red is RR, white is rr, and pink is Rr.
gene mutations: a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene, occur in two ways: they can be inherited from a parent or acquired during a person's lifetime ex:1. Huntington's disease 2. Hemophilia 3. Cystic Fibrosis
diploid: a term used to refer to a cell that contains both sets of homologous chromosomes
respiration is...: exergonic (releases energy)
carbohydrates: Elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Importance: provide you with energy Subunits: saccharides Examples: complex: starches; simple (mono) fructose
glycolysis: (Anaerobic) - first step in releasing the energy of glucose, in which a molecule is broken into two molecules of Pyruvic acid, creates least amount of energy, occurs in cytoplasm, only makes 2 units of ATP
flagella: long, slender projection form a cell body, move cell and other particles
Malthus: a. Human population (1. expediential growth is deadly due to not enough resources 2. growth and then moderation due to limiting factors) b. Yeast population (example he used to identify population problems) c. Limiting factors (dependent (war and disease) and independent (tornado and flood)) d. Carrying capacity (the largest number of individuals of a population that a given environment can support
temperate grassland: abiotic- warm to hot summers; cold winters; moderate, seasonal precipitation; fertile soils, occasional fires; biotic- lush, perennial grasses and herbs, coyotes and badgers, rabbits, prairie dogs, snakes
biodiversity: cause= variety of animals, effect= allows them to help each other
anaphase: the third phase of mitosis, during which the chromosome pairs separate and move toward opposite poles

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