Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy Test III
Terms
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- What are the properties of muscule tissue?
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- Specialized tissue
- Contractile (cells can shorten)
- Depolarizing membrane - myofibril
- a contractile unit of muscle cell; a chain of repeating sarcomeres composed of myofilaments
- What is the contractile part of a muscle organ?
- muscle fiber
- What is a chain of repeating sarcomeres composed of myofilaments?
- myofibril
- Each bundle of muscle fiber is surrounded by __________.
- Connective tissue
- A bundle of muscle fibers defined by a connective tissue coat within a muscle organ is called a ________.
- Fascicle
- What type of muscle is composed of fibers with multiple nuclei and striations that produce rapid contractions?
- Skeletal muscle
- What type of muscle is composed of cells with 1 or 2 nuclei and have striations?
- Cardiac muscle
- What type of muscle makes up the heart?
- Cardiac muscle
- How do contractions spread through cell bundles in cardiac muscle?
- intercalculated discs
- Viscera, blood vessels, and arrector pili are made up of this type of muscle.
- Smooth muscle
- This type of muscle has a single nuclei, no striations, and slow contraction rate.
- Smooth muscle
- When each fiber requires nerve input to contract it is called __________.
- Neurogenic
- In muscle that is neurogenic, each cell is isolated by __________.
- Connective tissue
- When nerve input is not required to contract, the innervation of the muscle is called _______
- Myogenic
- What is the distribution of skeletal muscle?
- attached to skeleton
- What is the morphology of skeletal muscle?
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- Fibers with multiple nuclei
- striated - What are the functional properties of skeletal muscle?
- rapid contraction that occurs at varying rates
- Describe the innervation of skeletal muscle
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- Neurogenic
- Individual cells are isolated by CT so nerves can be selective about what cells of muscle to target - What is the distribution of smooth muscle?
- viscera, blood vessels, and arrector pili
- What is the morphology of smooth muscle?
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- Cells with one nucleus
- No striations - What is are the functional properties of smooth muscle?
- slow contraction
- Describe the innervation of smooth muscle.
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- neurogenic - sheet of muscle divided by CT
- cells in a sheet have membrane to membrane contract
- Slow wave of contraction - What is the distribution of cardiac muscle?
- heart
- What is the morphology of cardiac muscle?
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- cells have 1-2 nuclei
- striations - What are the functional properties of cardiac muscle?
- contraction spreads through cells via intercalculated discs which form membrane connections and gap junctions
- Describe the innervation of cardiac muscle.
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- Myogenic
- Contraction rate may be moderated by nerve input - To be functional, muscles and/or tendons must cross a ___________ ______.
- Moveable joint
- Muscles only generate a force when they _________. Returning to a ______ state doesn not generate a force.
- Contract; relaxed
- Muscles can only: PULL or PUSH (pick one)
- Muscles can only pull, they cannot push
- Muscle strength is proportional to _________.
- Cross-sectional area
- Points of muscle attachment determine ___________ and ________.
- Speed and strength
- The thin filament of a muscle fiber is made up of _______.
- Actin
- The thick fialment of a muscle fiber is made up of _________.
- Myosin
- What is a repeating unit of overlapping myofilaments that composes the contractile myofibril of a muscle cell?
- Sarcomere
- What is the arrangment of the sarcomere (in terms of fibers)?
- Thick and thin filaments are arranged to overlap
- In the resting phase there is __________ overlap between thick and thin filaments. In a contracted state, there is _________ overlap between thick and thin filaments
- little; lots
- Describe the contraction mechanism of the sarcomere.
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It is a sliding mechanism
- Myosin heads are attracted to active sites on actin
- If the active sites are exposed, the myosin heads will bind to them and "grab and pull" - Why do muscles bulge?
- It is a result of the overlap of actin and myosin filaments that occurs during contraction.
- How do muscle fibers prevent constant contraction?
- Tropomyosin coils around the active sites on actin to prevent contraction; in the presence of calcium, the tropomyosin uncovers the active site for myosin to bind to
- When a muscle functions to bring a limb back towards the midline, its function is _________.
- Adduction
- When a muscle functions to pull a limb or part away from the midline, its function is ______________.
- Abduction
- When a muscle pulls two parts away from each other, its function is __________.
- Extension
- When a muscle pulls two parts toward each other, its function is ___________.
- Flexon
- Muscles that have the opposite affect of the prime mover are called ___________.
- Antagonists
- The muscle that performs the action is called the ________.
- prime mover or agonist
- The muscle that performs the stabalizer function is called _________.
- Fixator
- The dorsal portion of the myotome is the _______.
- Epaxial muscle
- The ventral portion of the myotome is the ________.
- Hypaxial muscle
- This divides the myotomes into dorsal and ventral regions but is lost in amniotes.
- horizontal skeletogenous septum
- The epaxial muscles of modern amphibians are called the __________ _______.
- Dorsalis trunci
- What is the significance of the muscular sling of the pectoral girdle?
- It is responsible for keeping limbs in place as well as for movement of the girdle
- The muscles that run from the thorax to the shoulder to suspend the anterior part of the body form the ______ ______ _ _ ______ _______.
- Musclular sling of the pectoral girdle
- In mammals, what muscles comprise the muscular sling of the pectoral girldle?
- trapezius, rhomboideus, serratus ventralis, and pectoralis
- Describe the sliding mechanism of the sarcomere.
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- The degree of overlap between the thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments changes to create a contraction
- The sliding mechanism is caused by the myosin head grabbing and pulling the active site of actin
- the linked areas of myosin and actin filaments are called cross bridges - How is it possible to stick our your tongue?
- Squeeze muscles to produce a "pushing" action
- How can a bird raise its wings given that the muscles for this action are located on the sternum ventral to the wings?
- Muscles have a pulley system where the contraction of the depressor causes a contraction in the elevator
- How is it possible to throw a punch?
- Antagonist muscles counteract prime movers
- Describe the general structure and function of the axial (epaxial and hypaxial) muscluature in fishes.
- myomeres are separated by myosepta, epaxial, and hypaxial muscles divided by horizontal skelegenous septum (except in jawless fishes which have no septum)
- Describe the general structure and function of the axial (epaxial and hypaxial) muscluature in Lissamphibia.
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- Have epaxial musculature in the form of dorsalis trunci(not specialized)
- Have hypaxial musculature in the form of abdominal musculature; this is specialized and works to keep the viscera in place - Describe the general structure and function of the axial (epaxial and hypaxial) muscluature in amniotes other than birds.
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- Have epaxial musculature which is divided into transversospinalis, longissimus, and iliocostals
- Have hypaxial musculature which is divided into abdominal, intercostal, and neck musculature
- NO horizontal skelegentous septum - Describe the general structure and function of the axial (epaxial and hypaxial) muscluature in birds.
- Have reduced axial musculature due to fusion of vertebrate column, and ribs; NO HSS
- What is the mammalian homolog of the cucullaris of chondricthyes?
- trapezius
- What is the mammalian homolog of the adductor mandibulae of chondricthyes?
- masseter, temporalis, and pterygoid
- What is the mammalian homolog of the levator palatoquadrate of chondricthyes?
- Lost in groups with palatoquadrate incorporated into skull????????
- What are the components of the muscular sling for the pectoral girdle in mammals?
- trapezius, rhomboideus, serratus ventralis, and pectoralis
- Why is there no muscular sling for the pelvic gridle?
- The pelvic girdle is directly attached to the vertebrate column
- Gas exchange between blood and the deep body tissues is called _______.
- Internal respiration
- Internal respiration provides oxygen for ________ processes.
- metabolic
- Gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the environment and the blood via the respiratory surface is called ________.
- External respiration
- External gills arise in what region?
- branchial region
- What do external gills arise as?
- filamentous capillary beds that protrude into the surrounding water
- How are external gill slits functional
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- In water with a current, water flows across their projecting surfaces to ventilate
- In still water, specialized muscles sweep them back and forth to ventilate them - Where do exeternal gills receive blood supply from
- aortic arch
- Enlaged capillary beds covered with skin, that protrude from the branchial region of an animal and are not connected to branchial arches are called ___________.
- External gills
- This type of gill is associated with the pharyngeal arches and pouches.
- Internal gills
- The interbranchial septum and the operculum cover these.
- Internal gills
- Internal gills receive their blood supply from _________.
- branchial arteries
- What are internal gills derived from?
- aortic arch
- These have 2 stacks of gill filaments that may be seperacted by a septum that extends from the branchial arch.
- Internal gills
- In this type of gills, ventilation involves a muscular pump of the buccal cavity actively driving water across.
- Internal gills
- Gill filaments on posterior and anterior sides are called ______.
- Primary lamellae
- Surface projections on the primary lamellae that contain the respiratory capillary beds are called _________.
- Secondary lamellae
- What are the characteristics of secondary lamellae?
- numerous, tiny and platelike
- If lamellae on both anterior and posterior faces of the interbranchial septum it is a ________.
- Holobranch
- A gill arch with lamellae on only one face of the interbranchial septum is a _______.
- hemibranch
- Has a single stack of gill filaments in its internal gills.
- hemibranch
- This is a skin fold that protects the internal gills and extends from the branchial arch to seperate the two hemibranch.
- Interbranchial septum
- A _____ is a ventral invagination of the endoderm that forms paired elastic bags withing the body that are designed for breathing.
- Lung
- In this breathing structurem sacks are paired with a common stalk (trachea and bronchii).
- Lung
- In this type of respiration, gas exchange occurs directly between the blood and the environment via the skin.
- cutaneous respiration
- The total volume inhaled in one breath is called the _______.
- tidal volume
- Lung ventilation that is bidirectional with air entering and exiting through the same channels is called ________.
- tidal ventilation
- In this type of ventilation, water enters the buccal cavity through the mouth, passes across the gill curtain, and then exits flowing one direction only.
- one-way or flow through ventilation
- A single elongated sac located dorsal to the digestive tract is called a _______.
- Gas bladder
- How is a gas bladder filled?
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- with air that enters via the pneumatic duct or
- with gas secreted from the blood - When the gas bladder is used primarily to control the buoyancy of the fush in the vertical water column it is called a ___________.
- Swim bladder
- How does the swim bladder form?
- It is a single evagination of the gut tube, usually mid-dorsal
- A tubular connection that connects the swim bladder to the pharynx is called a ______.
- Pnuematic duct
- When a fish remains in the same location in the water without rising or falling it is at ___________.
- neutral bouyancy
- An accessory breathing organ that retains the pnuematic duct is called a _________.
- Physostomous
- This type of swim bladder is no longer used for respiration and has lost the connection to the pneumatic duct.
- Physocliitus
- The chamber where the pharyngeal slits open is called the ____________.
- branchial pouches
- A tiny respiratory compartment within the lung that opens to a central air chamber and results from the lung lining is called a __________.
- Faveoli
- A tiny, one-way passageway that permits air to flow through the lungs is called a ___________.
- parabronchi
- The smallest subdivision of respiratory tissue in mammalian lungs that are located at the ends of the branching respiratory tree are called _________.
- Alveoli
- Compartments which characterize the respiratory bronchioles into air sacs are called ________.
- alveoli
- This is a thin sheet that connects the diaphragmatic muscles to the posterior side of the liver.
- Posthepatic septum
- This is a muscular pumping mechanisms that changes the shape of the rib cage to create a pistonlike action.
- diaphragm
- Describe how the contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm aids in ventilation.
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- When is contracts, it flattens, letting air in by creating a vacuum in the lungs
- When it relaxes, it rounds to expel the air from the lungs - This type of ventilation uses two pumps in tandem to drive water in a nearly continuous unidirectional flow across the gill curtain between them.
- Dual pump ventilation
- What are the two pumps that function in dual pump ventilation?
- buccal pump and opercular pump
- In this type of ventilation, the fish swims with the mouth open because they have lost the necessary musculature for the dual pump.
- Ram jet ventilation
- What type of ventilation requires continuous swimming for ventilation?
- Ram jet ventilation
- This type of ventilation emploes the mouth cavity, which expands to fill with fresh aire and then compresses to pump this air into the lungs.
- Gulp/Pressure or pulse pump ventilation
- In this type of ventilation, air is suck in by low pressure created aroung the lungs.
- Aspiration pump ventilation
- In this type of ventilation, lungs are surrounded by moveable structures such as muscle sheets, ribs and a sternum that the surface of the lungs adheres to.
- Aspiration pump ventilation
- How does the air move in aspiration pump ventilation?
- bi-directional and moves air tidally
- In this type of gas exchange, the flow of adjacent current of blood and gases occurs in opposite directions.
- Countercurrent gas exhange
- In this type of gas exchange, the flow of adjacent currents of blood and gases occurs in perpendicular directions.
- Crosscurrent gas exchange
- In this type of gas exchange, a large pool of gases crosses a current of blood.
- Uniform pool gas exchange
- What is the difference between oxygen concentration in water and air?
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Water - 0-.9 - varies with Temp
Air - 21% at sea level - What is the difference in the density/viscosity of water verus air?
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Water - 1000x that of air; depends on Temp
Air - very light - What is the difference in the rate of diffusion of water versus air?
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Water - slow
Air - fast - What is the difference in the metabolic expense in air vesus in water?
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Water - 20%
Air - 2% - What is the difference in respiratory structure in water versus air?
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Water - gills
Air - lungs - Which type of respiratory structure is better suited for water?
- Gills b/c they are unidirectional; would take too much energy for bidirectional method in water
- Which respiratory structure is better suited for air? Why?
- Lungs; because air is light and lungs allow for bidirectional flow
- What are the major factors that influence the rate of passive diffusion?
- gradient, surface area, distance, and barriers
- Describe the structure of lungs.
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- Ventral invagination of endoderm
- Sacs are paired with common stalk
- dead air space - How do lungs differ from gills?
- they use air instead of water and are bidirectional
- Describe the structure and function of air bladders in Actinopterygian fishes.
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- made from a single evagination of the gut tube
- usually mid-dorsal
- used to control the buoyancy of the fish in the vertical water column
- accessory breathing organ which can be used for hearing and sound production - How does the presence of a pnuematic duct influence the function of the air bladder?
- W/O pneumatic duct, the bladder cannot be used as an accessory breathing organ
- Describe the dual pump ventilation in water-breathing fishes.
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- Two pumps in tandem - buccal and opercular
- pumps work in synchronous pattern to drive water in a nearly continuous, unidirectional flow across the gill curtain between them
- 1st stroke in suction phase caused by the low pressure
- 2nd stroke is the force stroke - caused by a raise in pressure of both cavities - Describe the pulse pump ventilation in air breathing fishes and amphibians.
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- Use buccal or pulse pump
- mouth expands to fill with air and then when they close their mouth, the air is pushed into the lungs
- fish use both dual pump and pulse pump
- pulse pump is bidirectional - Describe the aspiration pump ventilation in amniotes.
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- air is sucked into the lungs by low pressure created around the lung
- includes rib cage and diaphragm which causes pressure changes
- feedding and breathing are decoupled which allows oppurtunity for further diversification of the two systems independently - Describe the gill morphology of the lamprey.
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- contain gills in branchial pouch
- water enters and leaves through the pharyngeal gill slits; tidal flow - Describe the gill morphology of the chondrichthyan.
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- may have lost their lungs secondarily
- have gills with complete interbranchial septum
- distal end contains a flap for pressure
- some use RamJet ventilation; have to swim with mouth open
- many have lost their branchial musculature necessary for dual pump so they must swim continuously - Describe the gill morphology of the actinopterygians.
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- have gills that are covered by operculum
- use dual pump system
- have swim bladders that can act as accessory breathing organs - What structures or muscles are involved in ventilation in crocodilians?
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- liver moves up and down to push air in and out of the lungs
- have diaphragmatic muscles - What structures or muscles are involved in ventilation in turtles?
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- lungs are pushed up against the carapace and therefore they are unable to use their rib cage for ventilation because it is fixed
- do not have diaphragm
- sheets of muscles that contract and relax force air in and out of the lungs and air pressure can be altered by moving lungs in and out of the shell - What structures or muscles are involved in ventilation in mammals
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- diaphragm that is dome-shaped below the lungs
- depression and elevation of diaphragm allows lungs to expand and contract - Describe the bird lung.
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- specialized
- one way flow of air
- ribs hinged to create the force on the lungs
- use crosscurrent system for gas exchange - Why are bird lungs more efficient at extracting oxygen than lungs of other tetrapods?
- high demand of oxygen for flight
- Digestion of food by enzymes secreted by salivary glands is called _________.
- chemical digestion
- This form of digestion involeves the chewing of food with teeth and the churning of the digestive tract to break up food.
- mechical digestion
- What is the function of mechanical digestion?
- breaks up food to increase the surface area available for chemical digestion by enzymes
- The cavity that contains teeth, tongue, and palate is called the _______.
- Mouth, oral, or buccal cavity
- Oral glands empty into the ______.
- Buccal cavity (or oral cavity or mouth)
- This structure is the passageway to the esophagus and is the entrance for food and air.
- Pharynx
- The alimentary canal is composed of the _________, _________, _________, and ______.
- esophagus, stomach, intestines, and clocoa
- Name the 4 layers that compose the alimentary canal.
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1) Mucosa
2) Submucosa
3) Muscularis externa
4) Adventitia or serosa - In this canal, food is broken down, absorbed, and waste is eliminated.
- Alimentary canal
- The terminal chamber for recycling fecal materials is called the _______.
- anus
- Progressive waves of muscle contractions within the walls of the digestive tract are _____________.
- peristalsis
- Peristalsis uses alternating conditions of these two layers.
- Circular and longitudinal layers
- What is the function of peristalsis?
- force to move food along digestive tract
- This substance is the hardest substance in the vertebrate body and is found in teeth.
- Enamel
- Enamel is of what origin?
- epidermal
- This is this innermost layer of the alimentary canal.
- Mucosa
- This layer of the alimentary canal include the epithelium that lines the lumen, the thin smmoth muscle fibers of the muscularis mucosae, and the region of loose connective tissue.
- Mucosa
- This layer is the smooth muscle layer of the mucosa and has inner circular and out longitudinal layers.
- Muscularis interna
- This is the second layer of the alimentary canal.
- Submucosa
- This layer of the alimentary canal consist of loose connective tisse and nerve plexes of the autonomic nervous system.
- submucosa
- This is the third layer of the alimentary canal.
- Muscularis externa
- This layer of the alimentary canal has smooth muscle with a circular (inner) layer and a longitudinal (outer) layer.
- Muscularis externa
- This is the surface layer of the alimentary canal.
- Adventitia or serosa
- This layer of the alimentary canal has fibrous connective tissue with mesentery covering in the peritoneal cavity.
- Adventitia or serosa
- Folds of the stomach that occur when the stomach is not distended with food and the wall relaxes are called ______.
- Rugae
- Fingerlike projections that project from the epithelial cells into the lumen are called _______.
- Microvilli
- What is the function of microvilli?
- increases the absorptive surface of the alimentary canal
- This type of intestine slows the passage of food to increase the time of digestion.
- Spiral valve intestine
- The ____ is a baglike expansion of the esophagus often used to store food temporarily during processing.
- crop
- A blind-ended outpocketing from the intestines through which food circulates as part of the digestive process is call the ________.
- Cecum
- A blind pouch that serves in digestion and absorption an dmay house bacteria for fermentation is called a _____.
- Diverticulum
- A ______ is an especillay well muscularized region of the stomach used to grind hard foods.
- Gizzard
- This is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach
- esophagus
- Name the properties of the esophagus.
-
ciliated
stratified squamous epithelium
keratinized - The enlarged region of the alimentary canal that serves for storage, digestion and absorption is call the ______.
- Stomach
- What are the 3 layes of the muscular externa in the stomach
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1. oblique
2. circular
3. longitudinal (will rugae folds) - This is a tube in the digestive tract that contains villi and in absorption.
- Small intestine
- This is a straight tube that passes into the anus and does not have villi.
- Large intestine
- A duct formed of cells of the epithelium that secrete mucus and serous fluid is called _________.
- oral gland
- The 2nd largest organ in humans is the _______.
- Liver
- This digestive organ is involved in the production and destruction of blood cells, a well as works to detoxify and remove toxic substance from the blood.
- Liver
- This organ manufactures bile and stores and metabolizes carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
- Liver
- The liver stores and metabolizes ________, ________, and ________.
- Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
- This organ serves as both and endocrine and exocrine gland.
- pancreas
- This organ secretes the horomones trypsin, insulin, and glucagon.
- Pancreas
- The system that includes the blood heart and vessels is called the ________ system.
- Circulatory
- __________ serves a transport medium
- Blood
- What are the 3 types/parts of blood and give a description of each.
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- Connective tissue - highly specialized
- Liquid matrix - plasma
- Cells - erythrocytes, leucocytes, and platlets - This type cell defends the body from infection.
- leucocytes
- This is the name for the red blood cells.
- Erythrocytes
- Do red blood cells (erythrocytes) have nuclei?
- Yes, in all but mammals
- This type of cell releases factors that produce a cascade of chemical events leading to the formation of a clot.
- Platelets
- This innermost layer of blood vessels surrounds the lumen and is composed of very thin sqamous cells.
- Tunica interna/intima
- This middle layer of the blood vessels is composed of smooth muscle and sometimes has elastic fibers.
- Tunica media
- This outer layer of the blood vessels is composed of fibrous connective tissue.
- Tunica externa/adventitia
- These provide the passageway for blood.
- Vessels.
- These carry blood away from the heart.
- Arteries
- These transport blood towards the heart.
- Veins
- These serve for exchange of gases in tissues.
- capillaries
- These are vessels that shunt blood flow.
- metarteriole
- This is the artery that carries blood from the heart to the lung.
- Pulmonary artery
- The ________ vein carries clood aways from the lung back to the heart.
- Pulmonary vein
- This type of muscle is striated and has 1-2 nuclei in each cell/fiber.
- Cardiac muscle
- How are adjacent cells of cardiac muscle connected?
- gap junctions
- _________ _____ join cardiac muscle together to form sheets.
- Intercalated discs
- When a muscle cell initiate depolarization and contraction without nerve input, it is considered ______.
- myogenic
- ___________ refers to the rate of contraction of a muscle cell being determined by the muscle cells themselves.
- Autorhythmic
- This part of the heart structure is the endothelium adjacent to the lumen and underlying the connective tissue.
- Endocardium
- This cadiac muscle is the connective tissue "skeleton" to which bindles of cardiac muscles attach.
- Myocardium
- This is the thin convering that is continuous with the parietal pericardium that forms the inner lining of the pericardial cavity.
- Visceral pericardium
- This is the tissue that forms the lining of the pericardial cavity.
- Parietal pericardium
- This is the cavity in which the heart lies.
- Pericardial cavity
- The pericardial cavity is lined by ________.
- epithelial membrane
- What is the importance of the pericardial cavity?
-
- isolate the heart from surrounding tissues
- allows for the mechanical and electrochemical isolation of the heart - This node is where cells that set the pace for the contraction of the heart are located.
- Sinoatrial node
- The heart contraction begins in the _____________.
- sinoatrial node
- A econd node present only in mammals that constists of Purkinje fibers is called the ____________.
- Atrioventricular node
- These fivers are neuronlike fiber that are modifeid cardiac muscle.
- Purkinje fibers
- This is the most cranial chamber of the heart.
- Conus arteriosus
- What does the conus arteriosus arise from?
- Bulbus cordis
- Conus arteriosus contains various numbers of _____ valves.
- Conal
- The anterior chamber of the heart in teleosts that has a thin wall with smooth muscle and no cardiac muscle is known as _________.
- Bulbus arteriosus
- This is the 2nd chamber of the heart to receive blood.
- Atrium
- This is the 3rd chamber of the heart to receive blood
- Ventricle
- This is the first of the four chambers of the heart to recieve blood.
- Sinus venosus
- The ___________ septum divides the ventrical partially.
- Interventricular
- In hagfish, the _______ heart is homologous to the heart of other vertebrates but has no conus arteriosus.
- Branchial
- In hagfishes, the _____ heart is a single, expanded vascular sac that receives blood from one anterior and one posterior cardinal vein, and then contracts to drive blood through the liver.
- Portal heart
- In hagfish, the ________ hearts are paired hearts located in the tail which pump blood in the caudal vein.
- Caudal hearts