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PSY 200 Personality, Motivation

Terms

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Encoding
to put information into a code for storage
self⬐referent encoding
making material or information personally meaningful
flashbulb memory
unusually vivid and detailed recollections of past events
retroactive interference
new information impairs the retention of previously learned information
proactive interference
learned information interferes with the retention of new information
retrograde amnesia
the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia
anterograde amnesia
the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia
problem solving
active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable
availability heuristic
basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances or examples come to mind
representativeness heuristic
involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event.
gambler’s fallacy
the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occurred recently
motivation
that activate, direct and maintain behavior toward some goal
emotion
subjective conscious experience accompanied by bodily arousal and by characteristic over expression
teratogens
a drug or other substance capable of interfering with the development of a fetus, causing birth defects
cephalocaudal trend
gaining control of the body head to feet
proximodistal trend
gaining control of the body from core to peripheral
maturation
the processes of biologically developing
fast mapping
the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure to the word
personality
distinct and consistent feelings and behaviors experienced by each individual
archetypes
images and forms that have a universal meaning across time periods and cultures collective unconscious- shared unconsciousness that all human beings have
Role of attention in encoding
in order to accurately encode information into the brain, one must focus their awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. Selective attention is critical to everyday functioning, it filters out most stimuli while allowing a few stimuli to reach conscious awareness.
Cocktail party phenomenon
a person can hear their name is a large crowded and noisy room. All stimuli is taken in and filtered.
Next in Line Effect
the individual is preoccupied rehearsing what they are going to say instead of focusing on what is being said. Info is never recorded
Role of Elaboration in encoding
Info is stored in STM for 20 seconds, you must rehearse this info so that it is stored in LTM
Structural Encoding
shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus. Registers font, color, size
What are the different types of encoding
Structural, phonemic and semantic
Phonemic Encoding
emphasizes what a word sounds like
Semantic Encoding
emphasizes the meaning of verbal input, thinking about the objects and actions the words represent
Echoic Sensory Memory
the brief mental echo that persists after information has been heard
Iconic Sensory Memory
the brief visual persistence of information as it is being interpreted by the visual system
Sensory Memory
preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time (fraction of a second). More like an echo than a memory, stimuli isn’t stored.
Short Term Memory
small and limited capacity, maintains unrehearsed info for about 20 seconds. When STM reaches capacity, new info bumps out old info. Four +/- One. Capacity can be increased by combining stimuli into chunks.
Long Term Memory
unlimited capacity. Holds info indefinitely and permanently.
Schemas
organized clusters of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event.
Semantic Networks
nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts.
Misinformation effect
(Elizabeth Loftus)- when participants’ recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information: distorts memories
Reasons why we forget
Ineffective Encoding Decay Interference Retrieval Failure Repression
Types of Memory (not WM, STM, LTM)
Declarative Procedural Semantic Episodic Prospective Retrospective
Declarative Memory
handles factual information. Recollections of words, definitions, names, dates, faces, events, concepts and ideas
Procedural Memory
memories for actions, skills, conditioned responses and emotional responses
Semantic Memory
general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned
Episodic Memory
made up of chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences. (What you’ve done, seen or heard)
Prospective Memory
remembering to perform actions in the future
Retrospective Memory
remembering events from the past or previously learned information
Tips to improve memory
Mnemonic devices- strategies for enhancing memory. Acronyms, acrostics, rhymes Link method- forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together. Engage in adequate rehearsal Schedule distributed practice and minimize interference Organize information
Barriers to effective problem solving
Irrelevant Information Functional Fixedness Mental Set Unnecessary Constraints
Differences between algorithms and heuristics
Algorithms- methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problem. Always results in a solution. Heuristics- (short cuts )guiding principle or rule of thumb used in solving problems or making decision. Remove some alternatives while pursuing others.
3 components of emotion
Subjective conscious experience- cognitive component Bodily arousal- physiological component Characteristic overt expression – behavioral component
Universality of some behavioral expressions of emotion
Fear Disgust Happiness Anger
Differences in the role of nature and nurture described by Locke, Rousseau, and Behaviorists
Locke- tabula rosa: clean slate. Nurture: Caretakers and environment determines development Rousseau- Nature: innate life plan and sense of right and wrong Behaviorists- Nurture: behavior is a product of conditioning. Reciprocal determinism- environment determines behavior but behavior also has an affect on the environment.
3 main stages of prenatal development
Germinal- fertilization and implantation. Formation of placenta. Embryonic- vital organs and bodily systems form. Most miscarriages and birth defects occur during this stage. Fetal- fetus, rapid body growth, bones and muscles form, formation of brain
Reasons for shift from reflex to voluntary for rooting and stepping reflexes
Innate motor reflexes gradually shift to voluntary actions so that the baby can control when it wants to walk and eat.
Overextension in speech
using a word incorrectly to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to: everything with wheels is a truck
Underextension in speech
errors that occur when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to: sister could be anyone’s sister, not just yours.
Over-regularization of speech
incorrect generalization of grammatical rules to irregular cases where they do not apply: “daddy taked me”
Accommodation
broaden old info to fit new info
Assimilation
take new info, fit into pre-existing mental structure
Effects of culture on personality
Individualistic- self reliant, selfish, be unique Collectivistic- group harmony, interdependent
Atkinson & Shiffrin’s information processing theory
Information Processing Theory: subdivides memory into three separate memory stores: Sensory Memory- preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time period Short Term Memory- limited capacity store, info stays for 20 secs w/out rehearsal Long Term Memory- unlimited capacity, holds info permanently
Baddeley’s model of working short term memory
Phonological Loop- recitation to temporarily hold info, evolved to facilitate the acquisition of language. Visuospatial Sketchpad- permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images Central Executive System- controls deployment of attention, switching the focus of attention and dividing attention as needed. Episodic Buffer- temporary, limited capacity store. Allows various components of WSTM to integrate info and serves as an interface between working memory and LTM.
4 main theories of emotion
Commonsense James-Lange Cannon-Bard Schachter
Commonsense Emotion Theory
Stimulus - conscious feeling - autonomic arousal “I tremble because I feel afraid”
James-Lange Emotion Theory
Stimulus - autonomic arousal - conscious feeling “I feel afraid because I tremble”
Cannon-Bard Emotion Theory
Stimulus - subcortical brain activity - conscious feeling & autonomic arousal “The dog makes me tremble and feel afraid”
Schachter Emotion Theory
Stimulus - autonomic arousal - appraisal - conscious feeling “I label my trembling as fear because I appraise the situation as dangerous”
Harlow’s research
contact comfort Monkey would rather stay with soft mom and starve rather than go to wire mother that has food. This proves that love is not about food- even when you are young.
Attachment styles
(Ainsworth) Secure- consistent and responsive care Anxious- inconsistent care Avoidant- distant/stand-offish care
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor- coordination of sensory input and response Preoperational- development of symbolic though marked by irreversibility Concrete Operational- able to classify things and categorize into hierarchies Formal Operational- abstract ideas, logic and systematic thinking
Kohlberg’s main stages of moral development
Preconventional- (decreases with age) punishment orientation & naïve reward orientation Conventional- good boy/girl orientation & authority orientation Post Conventional- (increases with age) social contract orientation, individual principles & conscious orientation
Erikson’s stages
Trust vs. Mistrust – is my world prectiable and supportive Initiative vs. Guilt – am I good or bad Identity vs. Confusion – am I competent or worthless Integrity vs. Despair – have I lived a full life
Big 5 personality theory:
McCrae & Costa Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory (structure and stages)
id- primitive and instinctive. Operates according to pleasure principle. Raw biological urges. ego- decision making component, operates according to reality principle superego- moral component of personality, incorporates social standards about right and wrong
Drive-Reduction Theory
internal tensions “push” toward satisfying basic needs
Incentive Theory
Positive or negative stimuli that lure or repel you “pull” forces
Biological and Evolutionary Theory
This perspective emphasizes the role of instincts (unlearned patterns of behavior) in motivation. The contemporary view is that instincts do influence behaviors, particularly those behaviors that are common to all members of a species
Optimum Arousal Theory
Rather than seeking some biologically based balance, the optimum arousal theory says that people are motivated to reach an optimal state of alertness or activation. People perform better at a moderate level of arousal. People differ in the level at which they enjoy and seek stimulation.
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Self Actulaization Belonging & Love Safety & Security Biological Needs
Scripts
organized clusters of knowledge about a particular event taken from previous experiences with the event.

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