Earth Science Final

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Pressure: Force/Unit Area
Mid-Latitude wave cyclones: Refers to a low pressure system comprised of cold and warm air, with the front commonly bending into a swirling low pressure system.
Paleothermometry: Measurement or estimation of past temperatures
general circulation: Warm air rises from equator and circulates symmetrically to north and south pole; cold air sinking at the poles, circulated back to equator for reheating/circulation
Historic surface temperature: Increase of 0.3 to 0.6 degress C over the past 150 years
Polar air masses: Originate in high latitudes; cold air mass temps.
Hadley Cell: a circulation pattern that dominates the tropical atmosphere, with rising motion near the equator, poleward flow 10-15 kilometers above the surface, descending motion in the subtropics, and equatorward flow near the surface. This circulation is intimately related to the trade winds, tropical rainbelts, subtropical deserts and the jet streams
Methane: Sources: fossil fuels, agriculture, landfills;
Temperature vs. Air Volume: Increase in temp= increase in air volume; decrease in temp= decrease in air volume
Summer Solstice: (June 21) At solstice, all points lying north of the Article Circle are placed within the circle of illumination for 24 hours contiuously
Jet Stream: Swift, high altitude winds.
Sun spot- climate response: Low sun spot activity: colder and wetter climates, in general; high sun spot activity: warmer and drier climates
Interglacial Climate: Melting of ice sheets, release of water from storage to ocean; O16 is released back to ocean
Weather: State of atmospheric conditions at a particular place for a short period of time
Altitude vs. Temp Variation: Tropo- colder, Strato- warmer, Meso-colder, Thermo-warmer
Cirrus: High, white and thin (wispy)
Air Pressure at Sea Level: 1000 milibars (1 kg/sq. cm)
Water Vapor: Most important gas in atmosphere; high heat capacity
Forceful Lifting: Air may be forced upward regardless of stability of stability of air mass or adiabatic processes
O16: 8 p+, 8 e-, 8 n; most abundant isotope; 99.8% of oxygen in ocean system
Sun spots: Dark spots on the surface of the sun
Axial Tilt: 23.5 Degrees
Cumulus: Cotton ball masses
Latitude vs. O18: Low latitudes= warm temp= > evaporation; tropical seawater enriched in O18
Insolation: (INcident SOLar radiATION) is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time
Heat energy: Measured in calories
Greenhouse Gas: Water vapor and CO2 allow shorter wavelength solar radiation to enter atmosphere, where it heats earth's surface inside, the earth's surface re-radiates longer wavelength terrestrial radiation, which is trapped by the water vapor and CO2, thus heating the air of the lower atmosphere
Storm surge: The abnormal rise of the sea along a shor as a result of strong winds
CaCO3: Calcium Carbonate
Stratus: Sheets or layers that cover much or all of the sky, no distinct individual cloud units
Air Pressure: The force exerted by the weight of a column of air above a given point
Post-industrial age: CO2= 364 ppm
Condensating Nuclei: Tiny bits of particulate matter that serve as surfaces on which water vapor condenses
Falling barometer: low pressure system approaching, coulds and rain
Ice core: a sample from the accumulation of snow and ice over many years that have re-crystallized and have trapped air bubbles from previous time periods
Equatorial Low: Low pressure Zone at Equator; Abundant Precipitation/Tropical Climates
Circle of Illumination: The great circle that separates daylight from darkness
Tropical air masses: Originate in low latitudes; warm air mass temps.
Visible Light: ROYGBIV
O18: 8 p+, 8 e-, 10 n; minimal component of ocean system; 0.2% of oxygen in system
Barometer: Measures air pressure; tube/liquid mercury
N. Hemisphere- hook right: Air deflected to right in the direction of travel
Tropic of Capricorn: 23.5 south latitude, markes the southernmost location reached by the vertical/direct rays of the sun in annual revolution pattern (occurs on Dec 21)
Relative Humidity: Ratio of air's water vapor content to its water vapor capacity at a given temperature
Temperature vs. Humidity: Decrease in air temp= increase in relative humidity; and an increase in air temp will result in decrease in relative humidity
Subtropical High: Zone of subsiding, adiabatically warming air at 30 N and S latitudes; World Deserts in this belt
Altitude vs. Pressure Variation: Higher altitude= lower pressure
Precipitation: Any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that is deposited on the earth's surface
Air Mass: Immense body of air, characterized by homogeneity of temperature and moisture at any given altitude
Rotation: The earth rotates on its axis from west to east (counter clockwise), complete rotation of 360Degrees every 24 hours
Biogenic: Sediment originating from a living organism
Hail: Hard rounded pellets of ice
Speed of Rotation: Greatest at the equator and decreases to 0 at the poles
Cumulonimbus: a type of cloud that is tall, dense, and involved in thunderstorms and other intense weather.
Ice-gas bubbles: Carbon dioxide records... show climactic changes throughout the years
Infrared radiation: Long waves: can't be seen, but felt as light
Sun spot cycle: The number and frequency of sun spots changes over time; 11 year cycle: > in sun spot activity
Mesopause: Boundary between mesosphere and thermosphere
Pressure gradient: Degree of pressure chagnes per unit distance
Continental air masses: On the dry side; land source
Mid-latitude Westerlies: North and South of 30 degrees N and S Latitudes; remainder of diverging, subsiding air (in Hadley cell) forced north and south respectively
Source Regions: Area of earth's surface over which air masses assume their distinguishing characteristics
Pressure differential: Caused by unequal heating of atmosphere by sun; variable solar insolation due to tilt of the earth, orbital path, latitudinal changes
Dew Point: Temperature at which air would have to be cooled in order to reach saturation
Tropical Cyclone: a storm system characterized by a low pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain, which form almost exclusively in tropical regions of the globe, and their formation in Maritime Tropical air masses.
Plane of the Ecliptic: The plane that passes through the sun and earth, enscribing the orbital path of the earth around the sun
Stratigraphy: A branch of geology, studies rock layers and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks
Temperature: A measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance
Humidity: A general term referring to water vapor in the air but not to liquid droplets of fog, cloud, or rain
Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate: Temperature gradient of rising air after cloud formation begins (i.e. past dew point)-- 5C/1000m altitude
Oxygen isotopes: O16 and O18 (show past water temps, ice-sheet sizes, and salinity variations over time)
fog: dew-point at ground temperature
Pre-industrial age: CO2= 280 ppm
Continental Polar: On dry and cold side
Saturation capacity: The maximum quantity of water vapor that the air can hold at any given temp and pressure
Warm Fronts: Warm air moves over wedge of cold air; Average slope- 1:200
Superposition: Sediments accumulate over time on the seafloor; oldest layer on bottom, youngest layer on top
Conduction: Transfer of heat through matter by molecular activity (spoon left in hot pan)
Late Wisconsinan Ice: Last Glacial Episode; maximum ice build-up at ~20,000 years ago; sea level ~120 m lowever than present
Radiometric dating: Carbon-14 and Uranium series dating of sedimentary strata; global chronology of isotope stage
Carbon Loading: Exceeds uptake of carbon dioxide by atmosphere and oceans; >carbon dioxide concentrations; 6.5 x 10^15g carbon/year
Thermal infrared radiation: The greenhouse process absorbs this heat reflected by Earth's surface and atmosphere
Cloud Droplets: Condensation on particulate matter/condensation nuclei; droplets form on millions of tiny particles
Winter Solstice: (Dec. 21) All points lying south of the Anarctic Circle lay continually within the circle of illumination, whereas, points north of the Arctic circle lay within continual darkness
Cloud Base: the lowest altitude of the visible portion of the cloud.
Stratopause: Boundary between stratosphere and overlying thermosphere
S. Hemisphere- hook left: Air deflected to left in direction of travel
Angle of incedence: the angle between a ray incident on a surface and the line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence
PSI: pounds per square inch
Atmosphere composition: Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (.93%), Carbon Dioxide (.035%)
Millibar: a unit of atmospheric pressure equal to one thousandth of a bar, unit of meausre for reporting atmospheric pressure
Adiabatic Cooling: Cooling of air caused when air is allowed to expand or is compressed, not because heat is added or subtracted
Stable Air: Temperature of rising (adiabatic) air mass < temperature of upper elevation air, air mass will tend to resist vertical motion
Rising barometer: high pressure system approaching, clearing weather
Heavy Water: H2O18= resistant to evaporation
Industrial age: Rapid increase in concentration of Greenhouse gases since this period (1800s)
Glaze: Freezing rain; supercooled rain drops that become frozen upon impact with trees, branches and surfaces
Sublimination: Converting water vapor/gas directly to solid ice
Altitude vs. Air Pressure: Increase altitude= decreased pressure
Glacial Climate: Build-up of ice sheets, removal of water from ocean; O16 is easily evaporated and stored in ice sheets
Upper level air: (high altitude) airflow parallel to isobars
Adiabatic Heating: Warming of air caused when air is allowed to expand or is compressed, not because heat is added or subtracted
Mesosphere: Temperatures decrease with increasing altitude
Climate Proxy: Create temperature records: tree rings, ice sheets, ice caps, glaciers
Thunder: Lightening-- rapid heating of air upon passage-- violent expansion of superheated air (explosive air expansion)
Fog: cloud with base at or very near ground, same general structure as cloud
Eccentricity: Circular vs. Elliptical orbital path- varies through time; variations in this will affect intensities of seasons
Maritime air masses: On the wet side; ocean/water source
Maritime Polar: On wet and cold side
anticyclone: NH- High pressure center; winds blow outward and clockwise around the high/ SH- winds blow outward and counterclockwise
Lake-effect: Snow showers associated with a cP air mass to which moisture and heat are added from below as the air mass traverses a large and relatively warm lake (such as one of the Great Lakes), rendering the air mass humid and unstable.
Trade Winds: Reliable steady winds
Coriolis Effect: Apparent shift due to rotation; earth rotating in counterclockwise direction as viewed from north pole
Earth-Sun Relation: The earth's dependence on the sun for solar energy is essential for all life; drives biosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere
Precession: Axial wobble and rotation of elliptical orbit cause equinoxes and solstices to shift slowly along orbital path (e.g.- summer solstice occurs at position farthest from the sun vs. closest to the sun)
Specific Humidity: Amount of water vapor contained in unit of air (expressed as wt. of vapor/mass of air= gm/kg)
Revolution: Earth revolves around the sun in a similar west to east rotation, once every 365 days
Convection: Transfer of heat by the movement of mass from one place to another (takes place primarily in luquids and gases)
Maritime Tropical: On wet and warm side
Obliquity: Axial wobble; tilt of earth's axis changes over time (ranges from 21.8- 24.4 degrees)
Polar High: At poles: high pressure; cold subsiding dry air forced equatorward
Lithogenic: Sediment originating from rocks
Anthropogenic emissions: Paleoclimate data suggests there is natural variation of greenhouse gases, ouside the influence of this.
Ultraviolet Radiation: Short waves: sunburn wavelengths
Turbulence: The mixing of warm and cold air in the atmosphere by wind.
Weather vs. frontal position: Warm Front= several hours of gentle precipitation over large region; Cold Front= Produce more violent weather (sudden downpours, wind gusts)
Water vapor: Has high heat capacity, and can absorb and release heat
Vapor Saturation: Maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold
Salinity vs. O18: Greater levels of O18= greater salinity
Mollusks, Foraminifera, Coral: Organism shells are composed of CaCO3 which is biogenically precipitated in the ocean water environment
Air Pressure: Force exerted by the weight of the air above
Climate: Average composite of atmospheric conditions for a given area over a long period of time
Troposphere: Bottom layer of atmosphere; "weather sphere"
Solar Influx: > in this= > glacier size (accumulation); < in this= < glacier size (melting)
Carbon isotopes: C12 and C13 (water circulation patterns, nutrient levels, atmospheric CO2 concentrations)
Voltage Discharge: Charge buildup until discharge; rapid multiple strokes of electrical charge from cloud to ground or could to cloud
dew: As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat, atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that of which it can evaporate, resulting in the formation of water droplets.
Unstable Air: Temperature of rising (adiabatic) air mass > temperature of upper elevation air, air mass will tend to rise vertically like a hot air balloon
Tropic of Cancer: 23.5 north latitude, marks the northernmost location reached by the vertical/direct rays of the sun in annual revoluation patters (occurs on the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere)
Radioactive isotope: Natural or artificially created isotope of a chemical element having an unstable nucleus that decays, emitting alpha, beta, or gamma rays until stability is reached
Thermosphere: Contains only minute fraction of earth's atmospheric gases, very rarefied air, low pressure (temp increases with altitude)
Latent Heat: The energy absorbed or released during a change in state
Frontal Wedging: Cool air acts as a barrier over which warm, less dense air rises
Ozone: O3; acts as filter absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from sun
Electromagnetic Radiation: The sun emits EM Radiation; long waves= ifrared- felt as heat; short waves= ultraviolet- sunburn wavelengths
Tropopause: Boundary between underlying Troposphere and overlying Stratosphere
Humidity: Amount of water vapor in air
Tornado: Violent wind storm emanating from a funnel-shaped spiraling column of air; rapid convergence of air to low pressure center; tied to cumulonimbus cloud, form in association with thunderstorms
Isobar: A line drawn on a map connecting points of equal atmospheric pressure, usually corrected to sea level.
Meteorology: Study of weather and atmosphere
Occluded Fronts: Cold front overtakes a warm front; wedging of warm air aloft between two cold air masses
Evaporation Fog: Cool air moves over warm water, "steam" rises from water evaporation from water occurs, air above reaches saturation point
Light Water: H2016= easily evaporated
Paleoclimatology: The study of climate change taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth
Stable isotopes: Isotopes of elements that do not undergo radioactive decay; provide basis for understanding of past climates (atmospheric conditions, oceanic conditions)
Radiation: Passage of radiant energy as wave energy (radiation from sun in vacuum of space)
Glacial- cold/wet climate: Max. eccentricity (elliptical) orbit, max. axial tilt, correlation of solstices with farthest points away from the sun during elliptical orbit, max. cold climate conditions at poles, max. evaporation/atmospheric moisture at equatorial zone
Convergent Lifting: Flowing of air masses together, occupies less space, air column forced to rise vertically
Lower level air: Air flow winds cross isobars at an acute angle
Weather Front: Boundary between two adjoining air masses having contrasting characteristics
Calorie: Amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 grame of water 1 degree C
Rain Forests vs. latitude: Rain forests are found at Equatorial Lows
Positive feedback: > ice area, > albedo, < incoming solar radiation, < temperatures, > ice accumulation
Advection Fog: Warm, moist air blown over a cool surface
Continental heating: Land heats more rapidly and to higher temps than water, and cools more rapidly and to lower temps than water
Global correlation: Replication of patterns from multiple drilling sides around the globe suggest that the oxygen isotope changes through time and represent global synchronous changes in climate
cyclone: NH- low pressure center' winds blow inward and counterclockwise around the low/ SH- winds blow inward and clockwise
Thunderstorms: Lightening, thunder, localized intense rain fall, high energy events; associated with cumulonimbus
Sleet: Particles of ice produced by warm air over freezing air, rain falls from warm air through freezing... frozen rain drops
Continental Tropical: On dry and warm side
Wind and Pressure: Air of higher pressure moves towards air of lower pressure
Results of global warming: Glacial melting, sea level rise, sea level expansion, > storm activity, increased flooding, shifting ecosystems, increased evaporation
Cloud Form: Condensated water vapor, comprised of aggregates of very small droplets of water or thin crystals of ice
Albedo: The extent to which an object diffusely reflects light from the sun
Orbital forcing: The effect on climate of slow changes in the tilt of the Earth's axis and shape of the orbit
Lightening: Cloud discharge of electricity
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate: 10C/1000m altitude (i.e. cooles 10C for every 1000m rise in altitude)-- if you're below 100% R.H.
Cold Fronts: Cold air moves into region of warm air; Average slope 1:100
Wind: Horizontal movement of air (advective motion)
Rain Droplets: 1 million times more volume than cloud droplet
nimbostratus: a cloud of the class characterized by a formless layer that is almost uniformly dark gray
Radiation Fog: Forms by rapid cooling of earth's surface (common on very clear nights where surface heat escapes readily)
Stratosphere: Ozone concentrated in stratosphere, hence the reason for the temp. increase
Orographic Lifting: Sloping terrain/mountain slopes act as barriers to air flow, forces air to ascend
Wind Speed: Controlled by: Coriolis effect, pressure-gradient force, and friction
Cloud: A form of condensation best described as a dense concentration of suspended water droplets or tiny ice crystals
Fall Equinox: (Sept. 22) The perpendicular rays of the sun strike the equator (day=night)
Funnel Cloud: a funnel-shaped cloud of condensed water droplets, associated with a rotating column of air and extending from the base of a cloud (usually a cumulonimbus or towering cumulus cloud) but not reaching the ground or a water surface.
Spring Equinox: (March 20) The perpendicular rays of the sun strike the equator (day=night)
Hurricanes: Whirling tropical cyclones with wind speeds up to 185 mph
Milankovitch Theory: Orbital forcing of climate change
Particulate Matter: Fine mineral dust, pollen, spores, sweeds, man-made pollution
Deserts vs. latitude: Deserts are found at subtropical highs

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